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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

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Chap._ Copyright No. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 














































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BABY STUART-BY VAN DYCK 


NEW 


Lessons in English 

. a». 

* . * ■ - \ 

V ■ • 

FOR 

Intermediate Grades 

BY 

/ 

J. N. PATRICK, A. M. 

v\ 


You cannot, by all the lecturing in the world, enable a man to 
make a shoe. 


Dr. Johnson. 


A. FLANAGAN CO., Publishers, 

CHICAGO. 

V.- 




T£m" 


65.341 

Copyright, 1892, 
J. N. Patrick. 

Copyright, 1900, 

BY 

A. Flanagan Co. 


1642 2 


Library of Congress 

Two Copies Receiveo 

JUL 9 1900 

Copyright ontry 

SECOND COPY. 

Delivered to 

ORDER DIVISION, 

J UL 19 190 0— 




CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

CHAPTER 1. 

The Sentence: Kinds—Principal Parts. 5 

Picture Study—The Anecdote. 

CHAPTER II. 

Parts of Speech—. 19 

Picture Study—Study of Poem. 

CHAPTER III. 

Classification of the Parts of Speech — 49 

Letter Writing— Study of Selections. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Inflection—.99 

Study of Picture and Selections. 

CHAPTER V. 

Verbals—Participles—Infinitives— ----- 149 

Study of Selection. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Phrases—Clauses—.159 

Study of Selection—Picture Study. 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Sentence: Elements—Principal—Subordinate— - 176 

Study of Selections. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Sentence: Simple—Complex—Compound— - - 190 

Comparative Picture Study —Letter Writing. 

Appendix. 208 























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PREFACE o 


‘ * Lessons in English ’ ’ was written with two facts in 
view : First, that pupils eleven and twelve years of 
age can think. Second, that exercises which require 
thought on the part of the pupil are the only exercises 
which lead him to a correct use of language. 

Memorizing extracts from great authors will never 
familiarize pupils with the logical value of the grammatical 
elements. It is the mastery of the sentence that enables 
one to appreciate the beautiful in literature and to ex¬ 
press thought clearly, concisely, and attractively. 

This book is inductive in method, direct in aim, and 
concise in statement. Numerous and exacting exercises, 
rather than perplexing exceptions and comment, dis¬ 
tinguish it from most elementary grammars. 

It is believed that 11 Lessons in English ” is a proper 
introduction to the author’s “Essentials of English,” 
and that these two books furnish all the grammatical 
facts and exercises needed in the public schools. 

J. N. PATRICK. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Note— This book has been enlarged and enriched by the addition of the 
Illustrations, the Selections and Exercises on pages 17, 18, 47, 48, 97, 98, 147. 
148, 157, 158, 169, 170, 171, 172, 175, 186, 189, 194, 197, and the valuable instruc¬ 
tions on Letter Writing. This is the work of two experienced teachers and 
admirably supplements the text prepared by Prof. Patrick. 




• . V 



























. 



































LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


CHAPTER I. 


THE SENTENCE: KINDS—PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

THE SENTENCE. 

Think of something you did yesterday. Tell, 
or express, your thought. 

What did you use to express your thought ? 

Thoughts are usually expressed by words, spoken 
or written. 

Any means by which thoughts are expressed is 

language. 

The language which we use is the English 

language. 

1. We think. 4. Short long. 

2. Read sing. 5. Trees houses. 

3. Wood burns. 6. Snow is white. 

Which of the above groups of words make sense, 
or express thoughts? Which do not express thoughts? 




6 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


1. wasting his time 

2. in the morning 

3. all misspent time 

4. was the first President 

5. the air that we breathe 

Are the words in the above groups so arranged 
as to express some meaning ? Does any one of the 
groups express a complete thought ? 

The words are so arranged as to express some 
meaning, yet it is necessary to add other words to 
each group in order to make it express a complete 
thought . Thus : 

1. The hoy is wasting his time. 

2. We go to school in the morning. 

3. All misspent time will he regretted . 

4. Washington was the first President. 

5. The air that we breathe shoidd he pure. 

When words are so put together as to express 
complete thoughts, they form sentences. 

A Sentence is a group of words expressing a com¬ 
plete thought. 

Every sentence should begin with a capital 
letter. 


THE SENTENCE. 


1 


EXERCISE. 

I. — Form a sentence of each of the following 
groups by properly arranging the words : 

1. clouds rain dark bring 

2. Florida in grow oranges 

3. made cream butter is of 

4. cat claws eighteen has a 

5. boys the playing are ball 

6. like place home there no is 

7. sweetly the sings robin very 

8. paper of made rags cotton is 

9. islands Venice eighty is on built 

10. on lived island an Robinson Crusoe 

II. — Tell which of the following groups of 
words are sentences : 

1. Children play. 

2. Is made of iron. 

3. A burning house. 

4. The house is burning. 

5. The cow eats hay. 

6. Playing on the hay. 

7. I sent you a book. 

8. The book that I sent. 

9. Steel is harder than. iron. 

10. Over the mountain. 

11. He went over the mountain. 


8 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


III. — Add such words as will make a sentence 
of each of the following groups : 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 
9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13. 

14. 


15. 


The rose — 

Seven days — 

Robert Fulton — 

Two little birds — 

Elephants’ tusks — 

Industrious pupils — 

In 1776 the United States — 

— is the first month. 

— was a great general. 

— tell us the time of day. 

— is the most useful metal. 

— cannot breathe in the air. 

— is the largest city in the world. 

— is called the father of his country. 

— revolves around the sun in a year. 


IV.—Write sentences answering the following 
questions: 


1. Of what use are camels? 

2. What animal produces ivory? 

3. How are minerals usually obtained? 

4. What plant is most useful for food ? 

5. What plant is most used in making clothing? 

6. By whom are anvils used ? Saws ? Plows ? Awls ? 

V. — Write five sentences about your school. 


KINDS OP SENTENCES. 


KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

1. The stars are distant. 

2. Can you count the stars ? 

3. Do not idle your time away. 

4. How glad we are to see you ! 

Are the above groups sentences ? Which one 
tells something ? Which one asks a question ? Which 
one expresses a command ? Which one expresses 
strong feeling ? 

A sentence which tells something is a declarative 
sentence. To tell means to declare . 

A sentence which asks a question is an inter¬ 
rogative sentence. To ash means to interrogate . 

A sentence which expresses a command is an 
imperative sentence. Imperative means commanding . 

A sentence which expresses strong feeling is an 
exclamatory sentence. To exclaim means to cry out. 

A Declarative Sentence tells something. 

An Interrogative Sentence asks a question. 

An Imperative Sentence ‘expresses a command or 
a request. 

An Exclamatory Sentence expresses sudden or 
strong feeling. 


10 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Every declarative and every imperative sentence 
should be followed by a period (.). 

Every interrogative sentence should be followed 
by an interrogation point (?). 

Every exclamatory sentence should be followed 
by an exclamation point (!). 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Tell which of the following sentences are 
declarative, which interrogative, which imperative, 
and which exclamatory : 


Youth is short. 

What time is it ? 

Oh, how you hurt me ! 
Bring your book to me. 
What a warm day it is ! 


Did you see the sunset ? 
Woodman, spare that tree. 

How many legs has a spider? 
Wisdom is better than rubies. 
What a beautiful sunset it was ! 


II. — Copy the following sentences, using the 
proper punctuation mark after each: 


1. Can the ostrich run fast 

2. Form good habits in youth 

3. Idleness often leads to vice 

4. Please let me hear you read 

5. How many sides has a triangle 

6. How beautiful the moonlight is 

7. The peacock is a native of India 

8. Oh, how I want Christmas to come 

9. What a beautiful tail the peacock has 


KINDS OF SENTENCES. 


11 


III. —Write a declarative sentence about each of 
the following: 


gold 

grass 

school 

Franklin 

elephants 


owls 
a doll 
vacation 
the stars 

the Rocky Mountains 


IV. — Change the following declarative sentences 
to interrogative sentences: 


It is cold. 

I shall come. 


You can finish your work. 
The boys want to go fishing. 


The girl skates well. There is a nest in the tree. 
The stars are distant. There are books in the desks. 

V. —Write five interrogative sentences. 

VI. —Write imperative sentences expressing: 

1. The command of a teacher to her pupils. 

2. Something your mother told you to do. 

3. The command of a father to his son. 

4. A favor you might ask of your father. 

5. A request made of your teacher ; of your mother; 
of a schoolmate. 

VII. —Write an exclamatory sentence about each 
of the following : 

a pretty doll the moonlight 

beautiful clouds a severe storm 

a flash of lightning very high mountains 


12 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

1. lions 

2. the children 

3. wave in the breeze 

4. was a poet 

5. how welcome is 

Are these sentences? Is any thought expressed 
about lions ? About the children ? What wave in 
the breeze ? Who was a poet f What is welcome ? 

To make sentences of the above, it is necessary 
to, add to each group such words as will complete 
the thought. Thus : 

1. Lions roar. 

2. The children are studying. 

3. The leaves wave in the breeze. 

4. Was Longfellow a poet ? 

5. How welcome is the rain ! 

About what is something said in the first sentence? 
In the second? In the third? In the fourth? In the 
fifth ? What is said about lions 9 About children ? 
About leaves ? About Longfellow ? About rain ? 

Every sentence must have two parts— that about 
which something is said , and that which expresses what 
is said. 


SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 


13 


That part of a sentence about which something is 
said, is called the subject of the sentence ; the part 
which expresses what is said about the subject, is called 
the predicate of the sentence. 

The Subject of a sentence is the part about which 
something is said. 

The Predicate of a sentence is the part which 
expresses what is said about the subject. 

EXERCISE. 


I. — Copy the following sentences, drawing 
line under the subject (when expressed), and 
lines under the predicate of each : 

1. 

Music charms. 

2. 

Gunpowder explodes. 

3. 

Speak only the truth. 

4. 

Shun evil companions. 

5. 

Morse was an inventor. 

6. 

Are the clouds far away? 

7. 

Can money buy happiness ? 

8. 

Pure water is the best drink. 

9. 

How slowly the snail moves! 

10. 

Rabbits burrow in the ground. 

11. 

Where does coffee come from? 

12. 

Do you like to read good books? 

13. 

A wise son maketh a glad father. 


14 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


14. What a brave general Grant was ! 

15. A good name is better than riches. 

16. Outdoor exercises give us strength. 

17. A love for the good makes us good. 

18. The light of the sun makes the day. 

19. The great oak grew from a little acorn. 

20. The mill by the river runs by water-power. 

II. — Supply predicates for each of the following 


subjects ; 

Lincoln 
farmers 
the lark 
the miser 
carpenters 
dark clouds 
the Esquimaux 

III. — Supply subjects 
predicates : 

bark 

flashes 

is brittle 

draw sledges 

comes from China 

are troublesome insects 


Indians 
Whittier 
the wren 
a volcano 
pond-lilies 
an idle boy 
good children 

for each of the following 

purrs 

twinkle 

was a hero 

is a mineral 

delivers the letters 

are moved by steam 


IV. — Write five sentences, underlining the sub¬ 
jects once and the predicates twice. 
















































































FEEDING HER BIRDS. 


( 15 ) 









FEEDING HER BIRDS. 


17 


FEEDING HER BIRDS. 

1. Study this picture carefully. 

2. Is the house like the houses you know? 

3. Are the children dressed like the children in 
your school? 

4. What time of year is represented? 

5. Describe the picture orally. 

6. Learn all you can about the artist and his work. 

7. Write a brief description of the picture. 

8. To what country do these children belong? How 
do you know? 

9. Imagine yourself one of the children and describe 
your home and life. 

Note to Teacher: 

In using the pictures it will be found best for the child first 
to study the picture for himself and write the story of it as it 
appeals to his imagination. Then the teacher may add the in¬ 
formation regarding the artist valuable to the pupil. In this way 
the children will learn of several masters. 

Have both oral and written descriptions of the pictures. A 
variety is here presented to give the child a wide view of the pos¬ 
sibilities in the art world. Art is life. Here is a combination of 
fact and fancy that makes for growth. Encourage pupils to bring 
in other pictures and begin making collections. 


Jean Francois Millet. 

Jean Francois Millet was born of peasant parents in 
a little town of France, 1814. He was a fine student. 
At eighteen he read the Bible and Vergil in Latin. At 
twenty he was a cultured man. 

Millet was one of the five famous painters of the 
Barbizon School. , It was his habit to study nature very 
attentively, yet much of his work was done within doors. 



18 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


With almost cruel honesty this artist has portrayed the 
bitter drudgery of peasant life. His children, however, 
seem happy. In this pretty scene of the mother feeding 
her little flock, one can almost hear her caressing tones. 
One daring hen looks as if she might challenge the 
babe’s right to be fed. 


His Head When He Was A Boy. 

Two strangers once went to a museum in London. 
They had a guide, who showed them everything that was 
remarkable. Together with many other things he showed 
a skull, and told them it was that of Oliver Cromwell. 

Now, as this skull was quite small, one of the 
strangers said: “How could so great a man have so 
small a head?” “Ah, well!” said the guide, “that was 
his head when he was a boy.” 

ANECDOTES. 

Note to Teacher: 

The use of the anecdote is to promote the story-telling 
power of the child. Have these anecdotes told orally, then writ¬ 
ten from memory. The teacher may tell the story and have the 
class reproduce orally or on paper. At other times the teacher 
may dictate an anecdote and then direct the pupil to compare his 
work with the text in the book for the purpose of correcting his 
mistakes. This is a most valuable exercise as a training in con¬ 
centration, self-reliance and exactness. This work trains the 
memory, promotes self-possession, strengthens the conversational 
powers, and assists in spelling, capitalization and punctuation. 
Induce the children to relate these anecdotes at home and to bring 
back reports of the home interest in them. Induce them to bring 
in new stories; to try writing up incidents that happen on the 
playground, on the way home or at home. The baby’s quaint 
sayings afford a great variety of pretty thoughts. 

This original work in story-telling opens a new world to the 
child through observation and invention. 



CHAPTER II. 


PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. boys rain trees 

2. play falls grow 

Is either of the above groups of words a sen¬ 
tence ? Notice that all the words in the first group 
are of one kind (name-words), and that all those in 
the second are of another kind (action-words). 

Boys play. Rain falls. Trees grow. 

How many sentences are there above ? How 
many kinds of words in each? Every sentence must 
have at least how many kinds of words ? 

In order to add other ideas to these sentences, 
still other kinds of words must be added. Thus : 

Happy boys play merrily. 

The rain falls from the clouds. 

Trees grow, hut they grow very slowly. 

Thus it is found that different kinds of words 
are needed to make sentences. Sentences form lan¬ 
guage, or speech; hence these different kinds of words 

are called parts of speech. 



20 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


NOUNS. 

1. Stars twinkle. 

2. Tell the truth. 

3. Tea grows in China. 

4. Your mind will improve. 

5. John laid his book on the table . 

Mention the words that are used as names in the 
above sentences. Which word is the name of a per¬ 
son ? Which the name of a place ? Which words are 
the names of things ? Which two name things that 
cannot be seen ? 

Words used as names are called nouns. Noun 
means name. 

A Noun is a word used as a name. 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Find fifteen nouns in the .following list 
of words: 


of 

new 

eat 

is 

day 

sing 

80ft 

true 

ripe 

song 

knife 

voice 

water 

pencil 

music 

please 

flower 

sponge 

rapidly 

pleasure 

perfume 

wealth 

labored 

pleasant 

England 

wealthy 

laborer 

conscience 


NOUNS, 


21 


II. — Write the names of : 

1. Five kinds of trees ; 

Five kinds of birds ; 

Five kinds of flowers; 

Five kinds of wild animals ; 

Five kinds of domestic animals. 

2. Five things in a church; 

Five things in a grocery store ; 

Five things in a dry goods store ; 

Five things in your school-room ; 

Five things seen on your way to school. 

3. Five different parts of a tree ; 

Five different parts of a clock ; 

Five different parts of a house ; 

Five different parts of your body; 

Five different parts of a train of cars. 

4. Five occupations ; 

Five agricultural products; 

Five manufactured articles ; 

Five materials used in making clothing ; 

Five materials used in building houses. 

III. —Copy the following sentences, and under¬ 
line the nouns: 

1. Silk is made in France. 

2. Longfellow wrote poems. 

3. Wood and coal are used for fuel. 


22 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


4. Tanners prepare leather from hides. 

5. The violet is admired for its sweet odor. 

6. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 

7. Parrots are brought from Africa by sailors. 

8. Webster, the statesman, had a great mind. 

9. We believe that the soul lives after the body is dead. 

10. The poet says the fragrance of the flower is its 

thought, which lives after it. 

IY. — Use the following nouns in sentences : 


glass 

cork 

year 

earth 

flash 

echo 

knives 

tides 

light 

prairie 

paws 

scent 

panthers 

watches 

report 

Write five 

sentences, 

and underline 


nouns. 

PRONOUNS. 

1. May said to mamma, “May loves mamma.” 

2. Little Jessie says, “Jessie wants Jessie’s doll.” 

3. The girls took the girls’ lunch with the girls. 

4. John took off John’s hat when John came in. 

5. Mary has a kitten. Mary loves the kitten 
very much. 

Do the above sentences sound right? Can you 
tell what is wrong with them ? 


PRONOUNS. 


23 


The sentences sound right when we use certain 
words in place of some of the nouns. Thus: 

1. May said to mamma, “/ love you.” 

2. Little Jessie says, 61 1 want my doll.” 

3. The girls took their lunch with them. 

4. John took off his hat when he came in. 

5. Mary has a kitten. She loves it very much. 

What words are used to take the place of nouns? 
Name the noun for which each italicized word stands. 

Words used in place of nouns are called pro¬ 
nouns. Pronoun means for a noun. 

A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. 

The noun for which a pronoun stands is called 

its antecedent. 

The pronoun I should be written as a capital 

letter. 

EXERCISE. 

I.— Copy the following sentences, using pronouns 
to avoid the repetition of nouns : 

1. John has a book and John will lend the book. 

2. Janies will buy a pony if Janies can buy a pony cheap. 

3. Harry loves Harry’s mother and Harry’s mother 
loves Harry. 


24 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


4. Fannie asked Fannie’s brother Tom to lend Fannie 
Tom’s knife. 

5. When Mary had finished reading Mary’s book, Mary 
put the book away. 

6. The whale looks like a fish, but the whale is not, 
for the whale cannot breathe in the water. 

7. The pupils are in order. The pupils have the pupils’ 
books ready to study the pupils’ lessons. 

8. William promised Gertrude that William would lend 
Gertrude William’s grammar, that Gertrude might study 
Gertrude’s lesson. 

9. George and Tom took George’s and Tom’s sleds 
and went coasting. George and Tom stayed until George 
and Tom’s mother called George and Tom. 

II. — Copy the following sentences, and under¬ 
line the pronouns ; name the antecedent, if given: 

1. I wrote a letter, but it was brief. 

2. Ruth, you have not finished your work. 

3. The boys asked their mother to excuse them. 

4. Did you give me permission to read your book ? 

5. Our friends came, and we were glad to see them. 

6. The horse is not afraid of its master, because he is 
kind to it. 

7. John was here. He left word for you to meet him 
at his office. 

8. Cyrus knew all the soldiers of his army, and could 
call them by their names. 

III. —Write five sentences containing pronouns. 


ADJECTIVES. 


25 


ADJECTIVES. 


roses 

girls 

flowers 


boy 


men 


money 


Do you know what roses are meant ? What 
girls ? What flowers ? Which boy ? How many 
men ? How much money ? May not each of these 
nouns mean anything of its kind in the world ? 

A certain kind of words may be added to the 
nouns to change, or modify, their meaning. Thus : 


red roses 
good girls 
pretty flowers 


that boy 
seven men 


some money 


Name the words used to modify the meaning of 
the nouns. Is there a difference between roses and 
red roses ? Between girls and good girls ? 

Words used to modify the meaning of nouns are 
called adjectives. Adjective means something added. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify the mean¬ 
ing of a noun. 

An adjective used in the predicate may modify 
the meaning of a pronoun in the subject; as, 


He is tall.- 


They are happy. 


26 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 

I. — Copy the following sentences, and underline 
the adjectives ; tell what each adjective modifies : 

1. All people have unhappy hours. 

2. A feeble old man has a tottering gait. 

3. Lions are called carnivorous animals. 

4. Grant was a firm, courageous, patriotic man. 

5. The average human life is thirty-one years. 

6. Last week he set out forty young pine trees. 

7. We should pity that poor little ragged beggar. 

8. White, fleecy clouds float in the bright blue sky. 

9. The feathery frost-work makes beautiful pictures. 

10. Much harm may be done by a few thoughtless words. 

11. They had a stormy passage across the great ocean. 

12. A cat has four padded feet and eighteen sharp, 
hidden claws. 

13. Those grand old oak trees have been growing many 
long years. 

14. This beautiful, gay butterfly was once an ugly, 
creeping caterpillar. 

II. — Write sentences containing the following 
nouns, using one or more adjectives to describe what 
each names : 


bird 

lion 

eyes 

snow 

wheat 

moon 

pupil 

apple 

berries 

diamonds 

soldier 

disposition 


ADJECTIVES. 


27 


III. — Write sentences containing the following 
words used as adjectives : 


ten 

tiny 

real 

blue 

fresh 

steep 

shady 

glossy 

gloomy 

bright 

several 

smiling 

handsome 

studious 

fragrant 

delicious 

beautiful 

interesting 


IV. — Copy the following words, and write oppo 
site each a word of opposite meaning : 


old 

legal 

sad 

true 

soft 

busy 

deep 

brave 

high 

warm 

kind 

heavy 

tame 

weak 

short 

honest 

many 

noisy 

polite 

correct 

rough 

sweet 

regular 

careful 


V.— Think of as many adjectives as you can 
that might be used with each of the following nouns : 


rose 

water 

oranges 

weather 

children 


stone 

clouds 

houses 

clothes 

Washington 


VI. — Write five sentences, each containing one 
or more adjectives. 


28 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


VERBS. 

1. a horse 4. she happy 

2. the pupils 5. ants insects 

3. John a letter 6. velvet soft 

Are the above groups sentences ? Is anything 
said about a horse ? About the pupils ? About 
John ? About she f About ants ? About velvet ? 

In order to make sentences of these groups, it 
is necessary to use in each a word that says, or 
asserts , something. Thus : 

1. A horse trots. 4. She is happy. 

2. The pupils study. 5. Ants are insects. 

3- John wrote a letter. 6. Velvet feels soft. 

Name the words that are used to assert some¬ 
thing. Name the word in each sentence about which 
something is asserted. 

Words used to assert (tell, ask, command) some¬ 
thing of some person or thing, are called verbs. 
Verb means simply a word. 

A Verb is a word used to assert something of 
some person or thing. 

Every sentence must contain a noun , or its equiva¬ 
lent, and a verb, alone, or with other words. (See 
definitions of subject and predicate , page 13.) 


VERBS. 


29 


The verb may consist of more than one word ; as, 

A horse can trot. 

The pupils are studying. 

John should have written a letter. 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Copy the following sentences, and under¬ 
line the verbs : 

1. Coffee is a berry. 

2. Bats are not birds. 

3. Tides rise and fall. 

4. Were there many present? 

5. Have animals a language? 

6. The cuckoo builds no nest. 

7. What strange things history tells! 

8. How many years make a century? 

9. Keep thy heart with all diligence. 

10. The moon reflects the light of the sun. 

11. Will you deliver the note which I am writing? 

12. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 

13. And the rain descended, and the floods came, and 
the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell not, 
for it was founded upon a rock. 

14. Woodman, spare that tree ! 

Touch not a single bough! 

In youth it sheltered me, 

And I’ll protect it now. 


30 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH, 


II.—From the following list of words, make 
twelve sentences of two words each : 


hens 

soar 

lambs 

reign 

food 

kings 

burst 

frisk 

graze 

cattle 

cackle 

cement 

eagles 

glisten 

sparkle 

nourishes 

flashes 

hardens 

teachers 

lightning 

instruct 

diamonds 

dew-drops 

soap-bubbles 


III.—Use the following words as subjects of 
verbs : 


lion 

kings 

bees 

silver 

farmer 

birds 

grapes 

rivers 

cooper 

thunder 

kerosene 

flowers 

lizards 

squirrels 

islands 

Victoria 

carpenters 

America 


IY. — Use the following verbs in sentences : 


plow 

swim 

was 

sow 

falls 

lived 

hum 

sews 

float 

crawl 

were 

shod 

dawns 

blooms 

seem 

chirp 

shines 

appear 

wrung 

scamper 

discovered 

remained 

tastes 

scratches 


Y.—Write five sentences, and underline the 
verbs. 


ADVERBS. 


31 


ADVERBS. 

1. John came. 

2. The bird flew. 

3. Some men work. 

Do the verbs in the above sentence tell all that 
we wish to know ? Might we not ask when John 
came 9 Where the bird Jlew ? How some men work 9 

To answer these questions, it is necessary to add 
to the verbs certain words which modify their mean¬ 
ing. Thus : 

1. John came early «, 

2. The bird flew down. 

3. Some men work rapidly. 

What word modifies the meaning of the verb 
in the first sentence ? In the second ? In the third ? 

Words used to modify the meaning of verbs are 
called adverbs. Adverb means added to a verb . 

Adverbs are also used to modify the meaning 
of adjectives and other adverbs ; as, 

They are extremely happy children. 

Grace sang unusually well. 

The river flows very swiftly. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean¬ 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 


32 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 

I. —Write as many adverbs as you can that 
denote : 

1. How birds sing. 

2. How people walk. 

3. How pupils recite. 

4. How we may speak. 

5. How work may be done. 

II. — Copy the following sentences and underline 
the adverbs; tell what each adverb modifies : 

1. Come immediately. 

2. Here are your books. 

3. The fire burns cheerily. 

4. There are kind people everywhere. 

5. Diamonds are extremely hard stones. 

6. How softly and silently the snow falls ! 

7. Few persons speak perfectly correctly. 

8. The ostrich is an exceedingly swift runner. 

9. Always obey your parents promptly and cheerfully. 

10. Winter is almost gone ; it will soon be summer. 

11. We saw the balloon go up, but not come down. 

12. The little bird opened its mouth wide, and hastily 
swallowed the worm. 

13. The crocus blooms early in the spring; the chrys¬ 
anthemum late in the fall. 

14. That very industrious boy does his work remark¬ 
ably well, and greatly pleases his teacher. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


33 


III. — Change the following sentences so that 
adverbs may be used instead of the italicized 
adjectives : 

1. He is a swift runner. [He runs swiftly.'] 

2. She is a graceful skater. 

3. The bee is a busy worker. 

4. John does accurate work. 

5. His actions are strange. 

6. Mary’s writing is beautiful. 

7. The girl sang a sweet song. 

8. The boy made a complete failure. 

9. He gave us an interesting talk. 

10. The snail has a slow motion. 

11. That horse is a rapid walker. 


IV. — Write five sentences, each containing one 
or more adverbs. 


PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Will you come — us ? 

2. Here is a flower — you. 

3. The boy ran — the house. 

4. The book — the desk is mine. 

Have these sentences any meaning ? Is there 
any relation between come and us ? Between flower 
and you V Between ran and house ? Between booh 
and desk ? 


34 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


A certain kind of word must be used in each 
of the above sentences to show a relation between the 
disconnected ideas. Thus : 

1. Will you come with us? 

2. Here is a flower for you. 

3. The boy ran into the house. 

4. The book on the desk is mine. 

Name the words used to show relation. Tell 
between what the relation is shown in each sentence. 

Words which join nouns or pronouns to other 
words by showing relation, are called prepositions. 
Preposition means placed before. 

The noun or pronoun following a preposition, 
and related by it to some other word, is called the 
object of the preposition. 

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
of its object to some other word. 

EXERCISE. 

I.—Copy the following sentences, underlining the 
•prepositions once, and their objects twice ; also tell 
to what each preposition relates its object : 

1. Do not lean against the wall. 

2. The ship sails across the ocean. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


35 


3. Italy is a country beyond the sea. 

4. I called for her and she came with me. 

5. The house on the hill belongs to him. 

6. The nest of the bird is in a tree by the brook. 

7. Their home, near the city, was destroyed by fire. 

8. A book with pictures in it is liked by children. 

9. The pencil rolled off the table and fell to the floor. 

10. The lark rises from the earth and soars toward the sky. 

11. You cannot go over the mountains without a guide. 

12. The boat came up the river and landed at the wharf. 

13. He went into the garden, and now walks in the 
garden. 

14. The reign of Queen Elizabeth is noted for its lit¬ 
erary achievements. 

15. George III. was born about three months after the 
birth of Washington. 

II. — Write each of the following sentences as 
many times as you can use (correctly) a different 
preposition to fill the blank : 

1. The pencil is — the book. 

2. The bird flew — the tree. 

3. He has a home — the sea. 

4. The boat went — the river. 

5. I received news — my friends. 

6. The cottage — the hill is pretty. 

III. — Write five sentences, each containing one 
or more prepositions. 


36 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. The sun shone. The water sparkled. 

2. The man is poor. He is contented. 

3. Rule your tongue. It will rule you. 

4. He will succeed. He works faithfully. 

5. The rainbow will appear. The sun comes out. 

How many sentences here ? Do so many short 
sentences together sound well ? Are any two of the 
sentences related in thought, or is each an independ¬ 
ent statement? 

A certain kind of word may be used to connect 
each pair of the sentences given above, and to show 
a relation in thought between them. Thus : 

1. The sun shone and the water sparkled. 

2. The man is poor, but he is contented. 

3. Rule your tongue, or it will rule you. 

4. He will succeed, because he works faithfully. 

5. The rainbow will appear, if the sun comes out. 

How many sentences here ? Name the words 
used to connect the independent sentences and bring 
them into relation. 

When two or more sentences are thus combined, 
they form compound sentences, as in 1, 2, and 3, or 
complex sentences, as in 4 and 5. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


37 


1. We study and we recite. 

2. John studies and Mary studies. 

3. William works slowly, but he works steadily. 

4. You have slates, and you have books, and 
you have pencils. 

5. He is a kind boy, and be is a polite boy, and 
be is an industrious boy. 

Do these sentences sound well? Is there not 
too much repetition ? 

The sentences may be improved by using but once 
parts that are alike, and connecting parts that are 
unlike. Thus : 

1. We study and recite. 

2. John and Mary study. 

3. William works slowly, but steadily. 

4. You have slates, books, and pencils. 

5. He is a kind, polite, and industrious boy. 

Name the words used to connect the parts of 
sentences. 

Words used to connect sentences or parts of 
sentences are called conjunctions. Conjunction 
means joining together . 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect sen¬ 
tences or parts of sentences. 

Note. — Three or more words following one another, and 
used alike in a sentence, as in 4 and 5, are said to form a series. 


38 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Words in a series, unless they are all connected 
by conjunctions, should be separated by commas. 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Copy the following sentences, and underline 
the conjunctions ; also tell whether the conjunction 
connects sentences or words, and when words, what 
part of speech : 

1. Time and tide wait for no man. 

2. The teacher spoke kindly, but firmly. 

3. The plant grows, blooms, and dies. 

4. Truthful and honest men are respected. 

5. Faith, hope, and charity are virtues. 

6. I will not go, since it is raining. 

7. She leads a gay but an unhappy life. 

8. Cease to do evil and learn to do well. 

9. The farmer raises wheat, corn, hay, and oats. 

10. I shall not go unless you go with me. 

II. You cannot reap if you do not sow. 

12. The lecture was interesting, though it was long. 

13. The boy goes to school, but he does not study. 

14. Obey Nature’s laws, or you will suffer her penalties. 

15. John will succeed, because he is industrious and 
persistent. 

16. We know that the earth is round, for men have 
sailed around it. 

17. The day is cold and dark and dreary; 

It rains, and the wind is never weary. 


CONJUNCTIONS 


39 


II. — Use an appropriate conjunction to connect 
each of the following pairs of sentences : 

1. Buy the truth. Sell it not. 

2. He is afflicted. He is patient. 

3. I honor him. He is a good man. 

4. Wood floats. It is lighter than water. 

5. Croesus was wealthy. He was not happy. 

6. Life is short. You should improve the time. 

7. Keep your promises. You will not be trusted. 

8. There is no harvest. There is no seed-time. 

9. I do not think it will rain. The clouds are very dark. 

10. Take care of the cents. The dollars will take care 

of themselves. 

III. —Combine each of the following sets of 
sentences into one sentence, using as few words as 
possible : 

1. Coal is found in Missouri. Iron is found in Missouri. 

2. Electricity produces light. Electricity produces heat. 

3. The merchant buys goods. The merchant sells goods. 

4. The farmer plows. The farmer sows. The farmer 
reaps. 

5. The day was bright. The day was cool. The day 
was pleasant. 

6. Diamonds are precious stones. Rubies are precious 
stones. Emeralds are precious stones. 

7. Lincoln was a good man. Lincoln was a wise man. 
Lincoln was a patriotic man. 



40 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


8. Furs are obtained from Alaska. Fish are obtained 
from Alaska. Lumber is obtained from Alaska. 

9. He reads slowly. He reads silently. He reads 
thoughtfully. He reads understandingly. 

10. The Southern States export cotton. The Southern 
States export sugar. The Southern States export rice. The 
Southern States export tobacco. 

IV. — Write five sentences, each containing a 
different conjunction. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

1. There they come. 

2. I am so glad to see you. 

3. We have not heard from him. 

Do these sentences express any strong or sudden 
feeling ? 

By using a certain kind of words with the above 
sentences, we add to them the idea of strong feeling, 
or emotion. Thus : 

1. Ah ! There they come. 

2. Oh 1 I am so glad to see you. 

3. Alas! We have not heard from him. 

Name the words that are used to express emotion. 
Which word expresses surprise ? Which joy? Which 
sorrow ? Do these words form a part of the sub¬ 
jects of the sentences ? A part of the predicates ? 


INTERJECTIONS. 


41 


Words which are thrown into sentences to express 
some emotion, are called interjections. Interjection 
means thrown into the midst of. 

An Interjection is a word used to express emotion. 

An interjection should usually be followed by 
an exclamation point. 

The interjection O should be written as a cap¬ 
ital letter. 

Note. — The interjection oh begins with a capital only at 
the beginning of a sentence. Oh is always followed by a comma 
or an exclamation point; O is generally followed by the name of 
what is addressed, after which the exclamation point is used. 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Copy the following sentences, and underline 
the interjections ; tell what emotion is expressed : 

1. Ha ! I see you. 

2. Pshaw! I am not afraid. 

3. Oh ! How you frightened me ! 

4. O Father ! Will you come ? 

4. Hurrah ! We have a holiday. 

5. Fie ! Fie ! I do not believe it. 

6. Hark ! I hear strains of music. 

7. Ah ! I have sighed to rest me. 

8. Awake, O bell! Proclaim the hour. 

9. The joys of youth, alas ! will not return. 

II. —Write five sentences containing interjections. 


42 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

We have found eight kinds of words, each doing 
a different work in the sentence. These are all the 
kinds that are ever used ; hence there are but eight 
classes of words, or parts of speech. Every one of the 
many thousand words in our language belongs to one 
or another of these classes. 

The following summary may help to fix in the 
mind the names of the parts of speech, and their 
offices in the sentence : 

Nouns, words used as names. 

Pronouns, words used in place of nouns. 

Verbs, words used to assert something. 

Adjectives, words used to modify nouns. 

Adverbs, words used to modify verbs, adjectives, 
and adverbs. 

Prepositions, words used to connect words be¬ 
tween which they show relation. 

Conjunctions, words used to connect sentences 
and parts of sentences. 

Interjections, words used to express emotion. 







WORDS DIFFERENTLY USED. 


43 


WORDS DIFFERENTLY USED. 

The same word is not always the same part of 
speech. The office of a word, the work which it does 
in a sentence , determines to what part of speech it 
belongs. As a word may have different offices in 
different sentences, it may belong to two or more 
parts of speech. Thus.: 

1. The boy threw a stone . 

2. A stone wall was built. 

3. Stone the reptile to death. 

In the first sentence, stone names an object; 
hence it is a noun. In the second, it modifies a noun ; 
hence it is an adjective. In the third, it asserts an 
action; hence it is a verb. 

Note the use of the italicized words in the 
following sentences: 

They live near the city. [Preposition.] 

Do not fear, mother sits near . [Adverb.] 

As we near the city, we see smoke. [Verb.] 

What a near approach to drowning! [Adjective.] 


We can hut try. 

But is a conjunction. 

They are hut children. 

No one was there hut him. 
He is poor, hut he is honest. 


[Adverb.] 

[Noun.] 

[Adjective.] 

[Preposition.] 

[Conjunction.] 


44 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 

Determine to what part of speech the italicized 
words in the following sentences belong: 

1. Hope is the balm of life. 

2. I hope it will not rain. 

3. He should act better. 

4. I do not know a better boy. 

5. Can you better your condition? 

6. The man yet lives. 

7. I can do little, yet I will try. 

8. The dog ran after the boy. 

9. I will go after you return. 

10. The book will be read in after years. 

11. The span of the bridge is long. 

12. Can you span the distance ? 

13. That is not more than a span long. 

14. We help one another. 

15. She could not get help. 

16. Help 7 I am drowning ! 

17. She came, for we sent for her. 

18. The mouse ran under the box. 

19. The ship went under with all on board. 

20. The under side of the board is rough. 

21. The mountain is grand. 

22. Waves mountain high broke on the reef. 

23. The good alone are great. 

24. Good men are beloved. 










CHORISTER BOYS. 


FROM PAINTING BY ANDERSON. 1847. 


( 46 ) 






QUESTIONS ON CHORISTER BOYS. 


47 


QUESTIONS ON CHORISTER BOYS. 

1. Do you like this picture? 

2. Describe the boys. Which face do you prefer? 

3. Why does the little boy look perplexed? 

4. Describe the picture orally. 

5. Write a paper, imagining yourself in a cathedral, 
and describe the building, the music and the feeling 
aroused in you. 

Note to Teacher: 

The children who have seen the beautiful and impressive ser¬ 
vice in the Catholic or Episcopal churches will readily find orig¬ 
inal material for composition work suggested by this beautiful 
picture of Anderson’s, exhibiting, as it does, the variety of spirit¬ 
ual awakening in child-nature. 


YOUR PLACE. 

Just where you stand in the conflict, 
There is your place! 

Just where you think you are useless, 
Hide not your face! 

God placed you there for a purpose; 
Whate’er it be, 

Think he has chosen you for it; 

Work loyally. 

Gird on your armor! be faithful 
At toil or rest, 

Whiche’er it be, never doubting 
God’s way is best. 

Out in the fight, or on picket, 

Stand firm and true; 

This is the work which your Master 
Gives you to do, 



48 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


YOUR PLACE. 

1. What are the duties of a soldier? 

2. Do you wish to be one? 

3. To fight battles, must one be in the army? 

4. What battles have you ever fought ? 

5. Which is more difficult, to stay at home or to go 
forth into battle? 

6. Write a paper expressing your thoughts on read¬ 
ing this poem. _ 

A Modest Eequest. 

It was a hot day, and a young man on foot making 
his way to the distant city was very tired. He wished 
often that he could have a chance to ride with some one. 
At length he saw a gentleman coming behind him in a 
carriage. This young man was a witty fellow, and he 
thought he would try his wit with this gentleman, who 
seemed to be a friendly man and who even spoke a few 
words to him. 

He asked the gentleman if he would be so kind 
as to take his coat with him to the gate of the next city, 
which they could see in the distance. ’T will gladly 
do so,” said the gentleman in the carriage, “but I cannot 
see how you will get it again, unless you can run as fast 
as my horse.” “O,” said the young man, “as to that, 
that is easy enough; if you have no objection, I will 
remain in my coat.” The gentleman thought the wit 
deserved a reward, and he took him with him to the city. 



CHAPTER III. 


CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

KINDS OF NOUNS. 

Common and Proper Nouns. 

The man is a poet. 

They live in a city. 

A river rises in a state. 

In the above sentences, do you know what man 
is meant ? What city ? What river ? What state ? 
Are man , city , river , state, names of particular objects, 
or is each of these words a name belonging in com¬ 
mon to all of a large class of objects ? 

Whittier is a poet. 

They live in Chicago. 

The Mississippi rises in Minnesota. 

In these sentences, which word names a particular 
man ? Which a particular city ? Which a particular 
river ? Which a particular state ? 



50 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Nouns like man , city , river , and state, which are 
names common to all of a large class of objects, are 
called common nouns. 

Nouns like Whittier , Chicago , Mississippi , and 
Minnesota , which name particular persons, places, or 
things, are called proper nouns. 

A Common Noun is a name common to all of 
a class of objects. 


A Proper Noun is the name of a particular per¬ 
son, place, or thing. 

Every proper noun should begin with a capital 
letter. 


When a proper noun consists of more than one 
word, each important word should begin with a 
capital letter; as, 

6rulf of Afexico Xocust Street 


ifocky Afountains i?ank of Commerce 

i^alpli Waldo Emerson Central ATigh School 


The following are proper nouns, and should 
begin with capital letters : 


1. Names of the days, the months, and the 
principal holidays ; as, 

ATonday January 

Christmas .Fourth of July 


KINDS OF NOUNS. 


51 


2. Names of religious sects and political par¬ 
ties ; as, 

Gatholic .Methodist .Democrat Tory 

3. Names of important historical events; as, 
War of the .Doses the Reformation the Rebellion 

4. Names of books, papers, etc.; as, 

“Tittle Women” “The Touth’s Companion” 

5. All names referring to God ; as, 

-Almighty Our Rather the Rternal Ooodness 

Uncle James Secretary Blaine 

Wm. Jones, Esq. Sir Walter Scott 

Mr. and Miss Smith Gen. W. T. Sherman 

What words are used in the above proper names 
to show respect, or to denote office ? What words 
are not written out in full ? 

Words used with proper names to show respect 
or to denote office, are called titles. 

When a word is shortened, it is abbreviated, and 
the shortened form is an abbreviation. 

Titles of office or honor used as parts of proper 
names should begin with capital letters. 

A period should be placed after every abbrevi¬ 
ation. 


52 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 

I.—Name the common and the proper nouns in 
the following sentences ; notice the use of titles and 
abbreviations : 

1. Gen. U. S. Grant was a great general. 

2. Rev. H. W. Beecher died March 8, 1887. 

3. She is a Presbyterian, and he a Unitarian. 

4. A doctor was called, and Dr. Fraser came. 

5. The Statue of Liberty is on Bedloe’s Island. 

6. The Pacific Ocean was discovered by Balboa. 

7. Yellowstone Park contains wonderful geysers. 

8. The largest lake in the world is Lake Superior. 

9. There are six states in the New England States. 

10. You should read “A Child’s History of England.” 

11. The boy asked his Uncle Frank to tell him a story. 

12. They have moved from that street to Pine Street. 

13. Supt. A. G. Lane is superintendent of the schools 
in Chicago, Ills. 

14. Our friends live in Cleveland, O., at 305 Euclid Ave., 
a very beautiful avenue. 

15. At the close of the Revolutionary War, Lord Corn¬ 
wallis surrendered to Gen. Washington. 

16. In the poem, “The Children’s Hour,” Longfellow 
speaks of his daughters, Alice, Allegra, and Edith. 

17. For the love of God is broader 

Than the measure of man’s mind, 

And the heart of the Eternal 
Is most wonderfully kind. 


KINDS OF NOUNS. 


53 


II. — Write the names of the days of the week ; 
the names of the months ; the names of the princi¬ 
pal holidays. 

III. — After each of the following common nouns, 
write two proper nouns belonging to the class which 
the common noun denotes : 


boy 

sea 

state 

boat 

girl 

city 

school 

bank 

lake 

ocean 

country 

capital 

poet 

street 

general 

teacher 

river 

island 

president 

mountains 

strait 

inventor 

discoverer 

exposition 


IY.—Write sentences containing the following 
abbreviations used before names : 


Mr. (Mister.) 

Dr. (Doctor.) 
Gen. (General.) 
Mrs. (Mistress.) 
Rev. ( Reverend.) 


Col. (Colonel.) 
Capt. (Captain.) 
Prof. (Professor.) 
Hon. (Honorable.) 
Messrs. (Gentlemen.) 


Y. — Write sentences containing the following 
abbreviations used after names : 

Jr. (Junior.) D. D. (Doctor of Divinity.) 

Sr. (Senior.) M. D. (Doctor of Medicine.) 

Esq. (Esquire.) U. S. A. (United States Army.) 

P. M. (Postmaster.) M. C. (Member of Congress.) 


54 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


VI. — Capitalize and punctuate the following sen¬ 
tences, using proper abbreviations : 

1. he lives in kansas city missouri 

2. the city is in the western part of missouri 

3. have you read hawthorne s tanglewood tales 

4. bunker hill monument is in boston, massachusetts 

5. the hudson river is the principal river in new york 

6. remember now thy creator in the days of thy youth 

7. doctor kimbal is one of the most successful doctors 
in the place 

8. I live at 307 wentworth street do you know where 
that street is 

9. the mayor of saint louis welcomed the president of 
the united states 

10. we shall have a holiday thursday because it is 
thanksgiving day 

11. we spent several days with aunt ellen our aunt who 
lives in the country 

12. the prince of wales will succeed queen victoria on 
the throne of england 

13. the mountains of western south america are an 
extension of the rocky mountains 

14. napoleon was defeated at the battle of Waterloo 
and banished to the island of st helena 

15. in the contest for governor governor fifer repub¬ 
lican candidate was re-elected in illinois 

16. the strait of gibraltar is a strait connecting the 
mediterranean sea with the atlantic ocean 

17. vassar college is a college attended only by young 
women it is situated at poughkeepsie new york 


KINDS OF NOUNS. 


55 


18. the quakers first settled Philadelphia Pennsylvania 
Pennsylvania was named for william penn 

19 a company of soldiers is commanded by a captain 
a regiment by a colonel and an army by a general 

20. general blank colonel richards captain barnes hon¬ 
orable t e fulton and mister and mistress pierce are at the 
metropolitan hotel 

VII.—Write five sentences, each containing both 
a common and a proper noun. 

Abstract and Collective Nouns. 

Beauty is admired. 

Kindness is a virtue. 

The man has great strength. 

Name the italicized nouns in the above sentences. 
Have you seen something beautiful ? Can you think 
of beauty by itself ? Have you known kind people ? 
Can you think of kindness without thinking of a 
person ? Do you know a strong man ? Is strength 
something you can think of as separated from any 
object ? 

Nouns like beauty , kindness , strength , which name 
qualities that are separated, or abstracted , from the 
objects to which they belong, are called abstract 
nouns. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality. 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


The army has lost its leader. 

A JlocTc of birds flew over us. 

The class in grammar is large. 

Name the italicized nouns in the above sentences. 
Are there many men in an army ? Can you think 
of the whole army as one thing ? Can you think of 
a number of birds together as one flock ? Is a class 
one thing, made up of several pupils ? 

Nouns like army , flock , class , which name a col¬ 
lection of things taken together, are called collective 
nouns. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a collection 
of things. 

Note. — Both collective and abstract nouns are common 
nouns. 


EXERCISE. 

I. — Name the abstract and the collective nouns 
in the following sentences : 

1. Hopefulness is a virtue. 

2. Congress has adjourned. 

3. Vanity goeth before a fall. 

4. The man has great wisdom. 

5. A committee of three was appointed. 

6. The jury has not rendered its verdict. 

7. The congregation rose and sang the hymn. 


KINDS OF NOUNS. 


57 


8. The world is full of poverty, vice, and crime. 

9. Youth longs, manhood strives, age remembers. 

10. The company were entertained by a recitation. 

11. The goodness of the Creator is seen everywhere. 

12. The band of robbers showed courage and discretion. 

13. Industry, honesty, and temperance, are three essen¬ 
tials of happiness. 

II.—Make an abstract noun from each of the 
following adjectives, and use ten of the nouns in 
sentences : 


true 

sad 

pure 

glad 

good 

just 

wide 

high 

brave 

wise 

sweet 

poor 

simple 

angry 

young 

great 

cheerful 

proud 

honest 

fierce 

pleasant 

fragrant 

wealthy 

distant 

prosperous 

ambitious 

impatient 

truthful 


III.—Write an appropriate word after each of 
the following collective nouns ; use ten of the nouns 
in sentences : 


herd of — 
flock of — 
gang of — 
drove of — 
bunch of — 
swarm of — 
couple of — 


fleet of — 
suite of — 
class of — 
crowd of — 
group of — 
regiment of — 
assemblage of — 


tribe of — 
crew of — 
team of — 
bevy of — 
squad of — 
family of — 
collection of — 


58 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns. 

I am going. 

Are you going ? 

She did it well. 

He has finished them . 

Which one of the pronouns used above repre¬ 
sents ( stands for ) the person speaking ? Which one 
represents the person spoken to ? Which two repre¬ 
sent persons spoken of ? Which two represent 
things spoken of ? 

Pronouns which represent by their form the 
speaker, the person spoken to, or the person op 
thing spoken of, are called personal pronouns. 

A Personal Pronoun is one which represents by 
its form the speaker, the person spoken to, or the 
person or thing spoken of. 

Pronouns which represent the speaker are of the 
first person, those which represent the person spoken 
to are of the second person, and those which repre¬ 
sent what is spoken of are of the third person. 

The pronouns in most common use, such as /, 
you, he, she , it, we , they, etc., are called the simple 
personal pronouns. 


KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 


59 


Pronouns formed by adding self or selves to cer¬ 
tain simple personal pronouns, as my self f yourself , 
himself , ourselves , themselves, etc., are called com¬ 
pound personal pronouns. 

EXERCISE. 

I.—Name the personal pronouns in the follow¬ 
ing sentences, and tell whether they are of the first, 
second, or third person ; also whether they are sim¬ 
ple or compound : 

1. I, myself, saw him. 

2. Did you enjoy yourselves? 

3. Charity vaunteth not itself. 

4. She told me about it herself. 

5. We did not see them ourselves. 

6. If you want a thing done, do it yourself. 

7. The man gave himself up when he was caught. 

8. John studied at home. Did he know his lesson? 

9. Did you see her ? She was here and left her package. 

10. I received some books, but I have not yet read them. 

11. When you see your father, give him our regards. 

12. The bird has a worm in its mouth. It will feed the 
young birds. 

13. Indians are treacherous in their character. They 
cannot be trusted. 

II. — Write three sentences, each containing one 
or more simple personal pronouns ; three, each con¬ 
taining a compound personal pronoun. 


60 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Relative Pronouns, 

He studies. He will learn. 

I received the letter. You wrote it. 

You have a book. I want to read it. 

How many sentences above ? Are any two of 
them connected, or is each an independent state¬ 
ment, or assertion? 

Each pair of the above sentences may be com¬ 
bined into one sentence containing an independent 
and a dependent assertion. Thus ? 

1. He who studies will learn. 

2. I received the letter ivhich you wrote. 

3. You have a book that I want to read. 

Does the italicized part in each of these sen¬ 
tences make sense, alone ? Does the part not itali¬ 
cized make sense without the other ? What, then, 
is the independent assertion in each sentence ? What 
the dependent assertion ? What word joins the de¬ 
pendent assertion to the rest of the sentence in 1 ? 
In 2 ? In 3 ? Do who , which , and that also repre¬ 
sent nouns ? They then belong to what part of 
speech ? 

Pronouns used as in the above sentences to 
represent, or relate to, nouns or pronouns to which 
they join dependent assertions, are called relative 
pronouns. 


KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 


61 


A Relative Pronoun is one which represents a 
noun or a pronoun to which it joins a dependent 
assertion. 

The antecedent of a relative pronoun is the noun 
or pronoun which it represents. 

The simple relative pronouns are who (ivhose, 
whom), which , that , and sometimes as. 

Who is used to refer to persons, which to things ; 
that and as may refer to either persons or things ; as, 

1. The man who was here has gone. 

2. I saw the house which was sold. 

3. Here is the boy that you want to see. 

4. The book that was lost has been found. 

5. Such tools as I have you may use. 

6. Such a boy as he is, will always succeed. 

The most usual compound relative pronouns are 

whoever , whichever , what , and whatever. 

The compound relative usually includes its ante¬ 
cedent ; as, 

I hear what [that which'] you say. 

Whoever \lie who] wants to come may do so. 

Take whichever [ the thing which ] you like. 

Whatever [anything which] he does, he tries 
to do well. 


62 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Pronouns that are used to ask questions are 
called interrogative pronouns ; as, 

Who is that ? 

What are you doing ? 

Which will you have ? 

The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is 
contained in the answer ; as, 

Who was here ? John . 

What do you want? Water. 

Which is your favorite season ? Spring. 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Name and classify the pronouns in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences; also name the antecedents of the 
relative pronouns : 

1. He who is honest is noble. 

2. That is the dog which I lost. 

3. Which is your favorite study? 

4. What is the price of the goods? 

5. Do good to them that hate you. 

6. What he said was of no interest. 

7. To whom did you give the letter? 

8. Such a day as this is, cheers one. 

9. You may have whichever you choose. 

10. Who first circumnavigated the globe? 


KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 


63 


11. Evil falls on him who goes to seek it. 

12. The evil that men do lives after them. 

13. I will send a boy whom you can trust. 

14. I will reward whoever will catch the thief. 

15. The girl whose mother is ill is very dutiful. 

16. We acquire the strength that we overcome. 

17. He that getteth wisdom loveth his own soul. 

18. Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well. 

19. The friend whom we were expecting has come. 

20. Lincoln, who was our most beloved president, was 
assassinated. 

21. London, which is the largest city in the world, is 
the capital of Great Britain. 

II. — Fill the blanks in the following sentences 
with appropriate relative pronouns : 

1. I know the boy — was here. 

2. I know the boy — you sent. 

3. That is the horse — was lame. 

4. Take the road — leads to the right. 

5. He — will not work, should not eat. 

6. Use well the opportunities — you have. 

7. Is that the lady — has been to Europe? 

8. Those are the children — we saw before. 

9. You have not sung the song — I like best. 

10. The child — mother is dead is unfortunate. 

11. Can you see the bird — is singing so sweetly? 

12. The flowers — bloom in the spring are beautiful. 

13. The man — took the money is one — all trusted. 

14. Dogs — bark loudest are not always the bravest. 


64 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


III. — Combine each of the following pairs of 
sentences into one sentence containing a dependent 
assertion introduced by a relative pronoun: 

1. The boy brought the note. He is waiting. 

2. Some fish are eyeless. They live in caves. 

3. The fur warmed a bear. It warms a monarch. 

4. I saw the house. It was blown down by the winds. 

6. The church was destroyed by fire. It has been 
rebuilt. 

6. Many animals have white fur. They live in the 
arctic region. 

7. Cotton is a soft, wooly substance. It grows round 
the seed of a plant. 

8. Goldsmith wrote “The Deserted Village.” He was 
born at Pallas, Ireland. 

9. The chairman introduced the speaker. The speaker 
was warmly welcomed. 

10. Cornwallis surrendered to Washington at Yorktown. 
Cornwallis was commander of the British army. 

11. The vessel was called “The Mayflower.” It brought 
the Pilgrim Fathers from the old world to the new. 

12. The Kohinoor is one of the most valuable diamonds 
in the world. It is in the possession of the British Crown. 

IV. —Write three sentences, using who , which , 
and that properly as relative pronouns ; three, using 
who , which , and what properly as interrogative pro¬ 
nouns ; three, using in each a compound relative 
pronoun. 


KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 


65 


KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 

Qualifying and Limiting Adjectives. 

Good children obey their parents. 

The small flower has a sweet odor. 

Withered grass revives after a rainy day. 

Which of the adjectives in the above sentences 
tell what kind f What kind of children is mentioned ? 
What kind of flower ? What kind of odor ? What 
kind of grass ? What kind of day ? Does each of 
these adjectives denote a quality in the object named 
by the noun ? 

Adjectives like good, small, sweet, withered, 
rainy, which tell what kind, or denote a quality in 
the object named by the noun, are called qualifying 
adjectives. 

A Qualifying Adjective is one which denotes a 
quality in the object named by the noun. 

The Indian shot an arrow. 

Each pupil has Jive problems. 

This tree bore several peaches. 

Much time is wasted by those boys. 

Which of the adjectives in the above sentences 
merely point out what the noun names ? Which tell 
how much or how many ? Does each of these 
adjectives make less general, or limit , the meaning 
of the noun? 


66 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Adjectives used to point out what is named, or 
to tell how much or how many, because they limit the 
meaning of nouns, are called limiting adjectives. 


A Limiting Adjective is one which points out 
the object named by the noun, or tells how much or 
how many. 

The limiting adjectives a, an, and the are called 
articles; the is the definite article , a and an are the 
indefinite articles. 

A is used before words beginning with consonant 
sounds , and an before words beginning with vowel 
sounds ; as, 

a house an apple a tree an effort 

A limiting adjective standing alone, representing 
a noun understood, is an adjective pronoun; as, 


This is yours. 
Some are left. 
Are there many ? 
I will take either. 


That will do. 

Few are choosen. 

Have all finished ? 

Each must do his part. 


An adjective used to ask a question is an inter¬ 
rogative adjective ; as, 


Which road shall we take? 
Whose pencil was left here? 
What book do you like best ? 


KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 


67 


Nouns and pronouns used to show ownership 
are possessive adjectives ; as, 

John’s slate is broken. 

The sun’s rays are hot. 

My book is on your desk. 

He wrote his name on their slates. 

Qualifying adjectives derived from proper nouns 
are called proper adjectives; as, 

An English vessel was lost. 

The American people are independent. 

TV r e are studying a Shakespearian play. 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Name and classify the adjectives in the 
following sentences, and tell what each adjective 
modifies : 

1. Which horse won the first race? 

2. A merry heart makes a smiling face. 

3. Last night the moon had a golden ring. 

4. Minnie’s fine large Maltese kitten is lost. 

5. In whose care did you direct that letter? 

6. Public measures were discussed by eminent men. 

7. An inquisitive person is an unpleasant companion. 

8. Innocent child and snow-white flower ! 

Well ye are paired in your opening hour. 


68 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


9. He was a pious, just, humane, temperate, and sin¬ 
cere man. 

10. The ocean eagle soared from her nest by the white 
sea’s foam. 

11. Three large whaling vessels were destroyed in the 
recent severe storm. 

12. The Vikings were a bold, piratical tribe from the 
Scandinavian peninsula, who infested the coast of the 
British Islands in the tenth century. 

13. Those evening bells ! Those evening bells ! 

How many a tale their music tells, 

Of youth, and home, and that sweet time, 

When last I heard their soothing chime. 


II. — Write sentences containing the following 
nouns, using one limiting adjective and two or more 
qualifying adjectives to modify the meaning of each : 


day 

gems 

boy 

fire 

book 

house 

girl 

dogs 

dress 

forest 

room 

storm 

ocean 

peach 

snake 

clouds 

mountain 

laborer 

ponies 

general 

III! — Form 

a proper adjective from each of the 

following proper nouns, 
tives in sentences : 

and use five of the adjec- 

Rome . 

Alps 

Asia 

Ireland 

Spain 

China 

Christ 

Germany 

Italy 

Russia 

Luther 

Scotland 

France 

Portugal 

Norway 

Switzerland 


KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 


69 


IV.—Write sentences containing the following 
words preceded by a or an : 


one 

unit 

harp 

ewer 

ounce 

uncle 

« hour 

eagle 

onion 

urchin 

honor 

eulogy 

orphan 

umpire 

hunter 

elephant 

European 

uniform 

hundred 

envelope 


V.—Determine which of the italicized words are 
limiting adjectives, and which adjective pronouns : 


I have some. 

All men are brothers. 

I remember that day. 

Both books are here. 
Please give me another. 

VI. — Determine which 
are interrogative adjectives, 
pronouns : 

Whose are those ? 

Which book do you want? 
What paper are you reading ? 

To what do you refer? 


Some people are slow. 

All are present. 

That is enough. 

You may have both. 
Another time will do. 

of the italicized words 
and which interrogative 

Whose hat is lost? 

Which did you get? 

W hat have you there ? 

To what place is he going ? 


VII. — Write three sentences, each containing 
a qualifying and a limiting adjective ; three, each 
containing an adjective pronoun ; three, each con¬ 
taining an interrogative adjective ; three, each con¬ 
taining a possessive adjective. 


70 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


KINDS OF VERBS. 

Complete and Incomplete Verbs. 

1. Flowers bloom. 3. John saws — 

2., The sun shines. 4. Carpenters build —- 

5. The child is — 

6. The men are — 

Which of the above groups of words are com¬ 
plete statements ? After which groups do you nat¬ 
urally ask what ? In which, then, do the verbs form 
complete predicates ? In which do the verbs not 
form complete predicates? 

Verbs which may be used alone as predicates 
are complete verbs. 

Verbs which require one or more words to com¬ 
plete the predicate are incomplete verbs. 

1. John saws wood. 

2. The child is happy. 

3. The men are farmers. 

What is the complete predicate in each of the 
above sentences ? Which completing word shows 
what the action asserted by the verb affects ? Which 
one denotes a quality in the subject of the verb ? 
Which one denotes the same thing as the subject ? 

Note. —Adjectives used like happy in 2, are called predicate 
adjectives. Nouns used like farmers in 3, are called predicate nouns. 
Both predicate adjectives and predicate nouns describe the subjects. 


KINDS OF VERBS* 


71 


The word, or words, which completes a predi¬ 
cate by showing what the action asserted by the verb 
affects , is called the object of the verb. 

The word, or words, which completes a predicate 
by describing what the subject of the verb names , is 

called the complement of the verb. 

The Object of a verb is the word, or words, which 
shows what the action asserted by the verb affects. 

The Complement of a verb is the word, or words, 
which completes the predicate by describing what 
the subject of the verb names. 


EXERCISE. 


I. — Tell which of the verbs in the following 
sentences are complete, and which incomplete ; also 
tell whether the incomplete verbs require objects or 
complements : 


Fire blazes 
He is a lawyer 
The sea was calm 
The earth trembled 

II. — Use an object to 
of the following sentences 

Cats eat — 

Birds build — 

Diamonds cut — 

The girl swept — 


Elephants are large 
David killed Goliath 
Artists paint pictures 
The brook murmurs gently 

complete the verb in each 

God created — 

She has read — 

Longfellow wrote — 

The hunter killed — 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


n 


III. — Use a complement to complete the verb 
in each of the following sentences : 


Iron is — 

Lions are — 

The earth is — 
The men were — 
Longfellow was — 
Quadrupeds are — 


Salt is — 

Lilacs are — 

The ocean is — 

A volcano is — 

My pet bird is — 

The cat’s claws are — 


Transitive, Intransitive and Copulative Verbs. 


1 . 

Ice melts. 

5. 

2. 

Wood floats. 

6. 

3. 

Horses eat hay. 

7. 

4. 

Smiths pound iron. 

8. 


Flowers are pretty. 
Velvet feels smooth. 
Snakes are reptiles. 
Grant became president. 


Which of the verbs in the above sentences are 
complete ? Which require objects to complete their 
meaning ? Which require complements ? 

Verbs which require objects to complete their 
meaning, as in 3 and 4, are called transitive verbs. 
Transitive means passing over. The action passes 
over from the subject to the object. 


Verbs which do not require objects to complete 
their meaning, as in 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8, are called 
intransitive verbs. The action does not terminate 
on an object. 


KINDS OF VERBS. 


73 


Verbs which require complements that describe 
what their subjects name, as in 5, 6, 7, and 8, are 
called copulative verbs. Copulative means joining. 
A copulative verb joins the complement to the 
subject. 

A Transitive Verb is one which requires an 
object to complete its meaning. 


An Intransitive Verb is one which does not 
require an object to complete its meaning. 

A Copulative Verb is one which requires a com¬ 
plement that describes what the subject names. 

Note. — Transitive verbs are always incomplete. Intransitive 
verbs are either complete or incomplete (copulative). 


Many verbs may be used both transitively and 
intransitively; as, 


I see clearly. 

I see a house. 

The wind blows cold. 

The wind blows the dust. 

The sun sets in the west. 

He sets the vase on the shelf. 


Write correctly. 

Write the example. 
John studies well. 

John studies grammar. 
He struck the ball. 

He struck at the ball. 


The abstract verb be is the pure copula-verb. 
A few other intransitive verbs are copulative ; such 
as, appear , look , see?n f become , feel , taste , smell. 


74 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 

I. —Name the verbs in the following sentences; 
tell which of them are transitive, which intransitive, 
and name the object of each transitive verb : 

1. The rain falls softly. 

2. The lightning flashed. 

3. Columbus discovered America. 

4. The rain refreshes the flowers. 

5. How peacefully the child sleeps. 

6. Whitney invented the cotton-gin. 

7. The sun set and the stars came out. 

" 8. The astronomers foretold the eclipse. 

9. The India-rubber tree grows in Brazil. 

10. The iceburg drifts slowly toward the south. 

II. What general conquered the known world? 

12. In the Bay of Fundy the tides rise very high. 

13. Volcanoes sometimes emit fire, smoke, and lava. 

14. The physician prescribes medicine for the invalid. 
15.. Johnnie beat the drum, and Willie carried the flag. 

II.—Name the copulative verbs in the following 
sentences ; name the complement of each verb, and 
tell whether it is an adjective or a noun : 

1. Glass is brittle. 

2. Quartz is a mineral. 

3. Phidias was a sculptor. 

4. He may become president. 

5. Idleness is the key of beggary. 


KINDS OF VERBS. 


75 


6. The water of the ocean is salt. 

7. Longfellow and Bryant were poets. 

8. Truthfulness and honesty are virtues. 

9. Children are happy, playful, and innocent. 

10. Are not the eggs of the humming-bird small? 

11. The peach looks beautiful and tastes delicious. 

12. The girl’s manners seem lady-like and refined. 

13. The flowers appear refreshed after the shower. 

14. Farmers are usually honest and industrious men. 

15. Victoria became queen when she was a young woman. 

16. The elephant is a clumsy creature, but he is very 
intelligent. 


III. — Determine in which of the following sen¬ 
tences the verbs are used transitively, and in which 
they are used intransitively : 


Water freezes. 

He freezes cream. 

The clock stopped. 

We stopped the clock. 
John rode the horse. 
We rode on the train. 


Boys sail toy ships. 

Ships sail on the ocean. 

The soldiers fought bravely. 
The soldiers fought a battle. 
I return your pencil. 

In spring the flowers return. 


IV. — Use tha following intransitive verbs in 
sentences: 


sit 

is 

lie 

grow 

live 

are 

went 

stand 

sleep 

was 

flows 

frowns 

shines 

were 

squeal 

laughed 


76 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


V.—Write sentences containing the following 
words used transitively : 


lay 

led 

set 

dig 

help 

rows 

made 

open 

threw 

called 

finish 

hoist 

fasten 

admire 

praises 

discover 

knocked 

conceal 

erected 

purchased 


VI.—Write sentences, using the following verbs 
( 1) intransitively, ( 2 ) transitively : 


shot 

read 

sing 

jump 

turns 

swim 

speak 

learn 

burns 

writes 

sweeps 

drowned 


VII.— Use the following adjectives as comple¬ 
ments of copulative verbs : 


clear 

sharp 

brave 

useful 

costly 

glossy 

dreary 

grateful 

playful 

fierce 

roguish 

diligent 

vicious 

valuable 

convenient 

poisonous 

VIII. — Use the following nouns as complements 
of copulative verbs : 

guest 

crime 

tools 

artist 

pupils 

insects 

mineral 

patriot 

teacher 

reptile 

statesman 

reformer 

inventor 

general 

quadruped 

vegetables 


KINDS OF ADVERBS. 


77 


IX.— Use an adjective to complete the predi¬ 
cate in each of the following sentences : 


I feel — 

You look — 

The pear tastes — 
The flower smells — 

X.—Supply two or 
complete the predicate 
sentences : 

Foxes are — 

My dog is — 

Some boys are — 
Some girls are — 
Good pupils are — 


She seems — 

He became — 

The country looks — 

The children appear — 

more suitable adjectives to 
in each of the following 

The day was — 

These roses are — 
Washington was — 

The apples were — 

Niagara Falls are — 


KINDS OF ADVERBS. 


Adverbs of Time, Place, Manner and Degree. 

1. He came yesterday. 

2. The girl stands there. 

3. They fought nobly. 

4. He works very hard. 

5. It is extremely warm. 

"Which of the adverbs in the above sentences 
tells when ? Which tells where ? Which tell how ? 
Which tell how much ? 


78 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Adverbs that tell when are adverbs of time ; 
those that tell where are adverbs of place; those 
that tell how are adverbs of manner; those that 
tell how much are adverbs of degree. 

Adverbs, therefore, are classified according to 
their meaning ; as, 

1. Adverbs of Time — now, soon, (hen, often, 
early, next, formerly, etc. 

2. Adverbs of Place — here, out, above, back, 
down, hence, everywhere, etc. 

3. Adverbs of Manner — how, thus, well, gently, 
slowly, so, otherwise, etc. 

4. Adverbs of Degree — too, very, more, nearly, 
enough, quite, etc. 

An adverb which shows the manner of the 
assertion, thus modifying the meaning of the whole 
sentence, is called a modal adverb ; as, 

I shall not go. 

Perhaps I will go. 

He will certainly come. 

That is indeed beautiful. 

You are surely mistaken. 

Tmdy, I cannot go with you. 

There will undoubtedly be a storm. 


KINDS OF ADVERBS. 


79 


An adverb which introduces a dependent asser¬ 
tion is called a conjunctive adverb ; as, 

I came when I was called. 

Tell me why you are unhappy. 

Make hay while the sun shines. 

That is the house where he was horn. 

I have not seen her since you were here. 

An adverb used to ask a question is an inter¬ 
rogative adverb ; as, 

Where has he gone ? 

When will they return ? 

Why did you do that ? 

How are you going ? 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Name and classify the adverbs in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences, and tell what each modifies : 

1. Where is Madagascar? 

2. Presently she returned. 

3. Always speak the truth. 

4. Truly I have not seen her. 

5. The horse walks very slowly. 

6. The train is probably delayed. 

7. How often has this happened? 

8. It is an oppressively warm day. 

9. They very seldom see snow there. 


80 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


10. Mary plays while her sister sings. 

11. Do yonr work promptly and accurately. 

12. How strangely easy difficult things are ! 

13. People were running hither and thither. 

14. I never before heard so eloquent a sermon. 

15. This is the window where the sun shines in at noon. 

II. — Change the following adjectives to adverbs 
by adding ly to each, and use the adverbs in 


sentences : 



neat 

calm 

easy 

heavy 

angry 

vivid 

gentle 

nimble 

regular 

terrible 

faithful 

immediate 

III. —Write 

sentences containing the following 

words used as modal adverbs : 


not 

surely 

perhaps 

truly 

certainly 

probably 

indeed 

possibly 

undoubtedly 

IY. — Write 

sentences containing the following 

words used (I) as conjunctive adverbs, ( 2 ) as inter- 

rogative adverbs 



how 

why when 

where 


V.—Write three sentences containing adverbs 
of time ; three containing adverbs of place ; three 
containing adverbs of manner ; three containing ad¬ 
verbs of degree. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


81 


KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Co-ordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions. 

1. John and James came. 

2. You may stand or sit. 

3. The girl works slowly but neatly. 

4. The wind blows, for the leaves stir. 

5. The sun shone, but the day was cold. 

What does each of the conjunctions in the above 
sentences connect ? Are the connected parts in each 
sentence of the same importance, or of equal rank f 

Note. — The different parts of a sentence are called its 
elements. 

Conjunctions which connect elements of equal 
rank, as above, are called co-ordinate conjunctions. 
Co-ordinate means of equal order or rank. 

1. I shall not go if it rains. 

2. We did not know that he had gone. 

3. You cannot succeed unless you work hard. 

4. The lecture was interesting, though it was 
somewhat long. 

What is the principal assertion in each of the 
above sentences ? What is the dependent assertion 
in each ? What conjunction connects the principal 
and the dependent assertion in each sentence ? Are 
the parts connected of equal or unequal rank ? 


82 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Conjunctions which connect elements of unequal 
rank, as in the preceding sentences, are called sub¬ 
ordinate conjunctions. Subordinate means of lower 
order or rank. 

A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one that connects 
elements of equal rank. 

A Subordinate Conjunction is one that connects 
elements of unequal rank. 

[Relative pronouns are used as subordinate con¬ 
junctions ; as, 

The man who was arrested is a thief. 

Study the lesson which you had yesterday. 

I have read the book that you sent me. 

They that touch pitch will be defiled. 

His father gives him ichatever he wants. 

Such flowers as they have are seldom seen. 

Conjunctive adverbs are also used as subordi¬ 
nate conjunctions ; as, 

I do not know when he is going. 

The reason why he went is plain. 

I will remain while you are gone. 

They played until they were tired. 

This is the place where we saw him. 

The country whence he came denied him freedom. 


EXERCISE. 


83 


EXERCISE 

I. — Name the conjunctions in the following sen¬ 
tences, tell what they connect, and whether they are 
co-ordinate or subordinate : 

1. Shall you walk or ride? 

2. She left before you returned. 

3. Many profess, but few practice. 

4. Men who are true are respected. 

5. I saw my friend while I was out. 

6. Seek wisdom, for wisdom ennobles. 

7. John will go, but Henry will remain. 

8. The lady walks firmly but gracefully. 

9. Sweet is the hour when daylight dies. 

10. The evil that men do lives after them. 

11. India-rubber is elastic and compressible. 

12. I have not heard from her since she left. 

13. If you want friends, you must be friendly. 

14. The waves ran high because the wind blew. 

15. Obey your parents, or you will be unhappy. 

16. Columbus believed that the earth is a sphere. 

17. Keep your shop, and your shop will keep you. 

18. We reached school in time, though we had to hurry. 

19. Alexander, Caesar, and Napoleon were great generals. 

20. Unless you are industrious and persistent, you will 
not succeed at anything. 

II.—Write three sentences, using in each a 
co-ordinate conjunction ; three, using in each a sub¬ 
ordinate conjunction. 


84 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION. 


We have found the following subdivisions of 
the parts of speech : 


Nouns. << 


Common 


General. 

Abstract. 

Collective. 


Proper. 


Pronouns. 


Personal / Simple. 

L Compound. 

Relative (Simple. 

L Compound. 

Interrogative. 

Adjective. 


Adjectives. < 


Qualifying. 

Limiting. 

Possessive. 

Interrogative. 


Verbs. 


Complete <J Intransitive. 

Incomplete (transitive. 

L Copulative. 


{ Time, Place, Manner, Degree. 
Modal. 

Conjunctive. 


Co-ordinate. 


Conjunctions. ^ 


fPure Conjunctions. 
Subordinates Relative Pronouns. 

IConjunctive Adverbs, 








EXERCISE. 


85 


EXERCISE. 

Determine to what part of speech each of the 
italicized words in the following sentences belongs : 

1. Will you come early ? 

2. The early bird catches the worm. 

3. How far is it to yonder hill? 

4. Yonder is the man you want to see. 

5. They live in a cottage. 

6. I met a little cottage girl. 

7. The first boy may recite. 

8. John may recite first. 

9. The first shall be last. 

10. They waited until evening. 

11. They waited until the sun had set. 

12. What are you doing? 

13. From what book is the quotation? 

14. I knew not what I was playing. 

15. Please hand me the round box. 

16. Round the corners off. 

17. Fasten the chain round your neck. 

18. She enjoys a daily round of pleasure. 

19. Do not wait so long. 

20. So we get there in time, I do not care. 

21. His step was light, because his heart was so. 

22. We started before daylight. 

23. We started before the sun was up. 

24. We had to wait for a long while. 

25. While away the time while I am gone. 


8G 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


26. That is the picture. 

27. I did not know that you called. 

28. Days that are gone seem the brighest. 

29 That that is not needed in the sentence. 

30. The house is still there. 

31. Still the troubled waters. 

32. Still waters run deep. 

33. He has all he needs, still he is not happy. 

34. We like to hear good music. 

35. Your son looks like you. 

36. The like was never seen before. 

37. Like causes produce like effects. 

38. Why can you not come? 

39. I do not know why he went away. 

40. Never mind the why and wherefore. 

41. Who lives above? 

42. The above lines are from Tennyson. 

43. The leaves danced above our heads. 

44. Poetry is from the above. 

45. She wore a beautiful gem. 

46. Stars gem the sky. 

47. The idle are unhappy. 

48. An idle man is useless. 

49. Do not idle away your time. 

50. The what is more important than the how . 


LETTER WRITING. 


87 


Letter Writing. 

MAILS—THE POST OFFICE—POSTAGE STAMPS— 
CARRIERS—PARTS OF A LETTER. 

A great many things are carried in the mails. 
Among these are letters, papers, books, magazines and 
merchandise of all sorts. The government pays for 
carrying the mails. Sometimes they are carried on 
men’s backs, sometimes on horses, sometimes in coaches, 
and sometimes on the railroad trains. The mail is 
placed in strong pouches or bags fastened by a lock. 
The postmasters have keys with which to unlock the 
mail bags. 

Almost every boy and girl knows where the post= 
office is, and that people of the small towns and villages 
go there to get their mail. In the large cities, however, 
the mail is delivered at the houses by the mail carriers. 
The same men, or others, gather the mail from iron 
boxes at the different corners. By putting the mail to 
go away in these boxes, people are saved a long trip to 
the post-office. 

Did you ever write a letter to a friend? Did you 
help the government to pay for carrying the letter? 
How did you do this? Does it cost any more to send 
a letter to a town in another state than to one near by ? 
Where did you buy your postage stamps? How much 
does a stamp for one letter cost? Can the person who 
receives the letter use the same stamp to pay for the 
reply? Why not? Are all postage stamps alike? Have 
you ever seen the postage stamps of another country ? 
Do people have to pay the same for carrying papers and 
merchandise that they pay for carrying letters? Why? 


88 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 

To write a letter properly, one should know (1) the 

parts of a letter; (2) how the parts of a letter should 
be arranged. 

The parts of a letter are (1) the Heading; (2) the Ad¬ 
dress; (3) the Salutation; (4) the Body of the Letter; (5) 
the Conclusion. 

The Heading of a letter contains the place and date , 
showing where the letter was written and when it was 
written. 


HEADINGS. 

jQ <\jrvxnlho, JPtp., ^aa/yio I, I cjOO. 
Btu// JlxxJvo, chwmlKpxlyb Co., CaX., 

hrWixJv 10, ISCjCj. 

2-lo3 llTahaAhy Mis., 

TTWi^ 3, I c|00. 

P. C/. Beva> 3 l 4 r ], (Ltta/vvta,, Cpcu, 

Tlo^. 2lo, I SCjS. 

CoVruXL 'li/yuA)',, cjJtAoco, TL Ijy., 

J^a/vu 20, I 8^. 

The Address of a letter contains the name, the title , 
and the residence or place of business of the person to 
whom the letter is written. 


LETTER WRITING. 


89 


ADDRESSES. 

P'‘Uxjy. (jxiAv. IS'l.ObOTl/, 

TloVmoX, SflJLbs. 


LCjo (L. S'ta/nxax^ayrv Co., 
12 -IoIq li/ctlMaAlv O/XKy., 
ClviOOCpo, ML&, 


TlbiAO Cd/rvo GXLe/rv, 

Q/huxxo-cL, To^xx/kv Co., CaC 


Note: 


In letters to relations or friends, the address is sometimes 
placed at the close of the letter, to the left of and below the sig¬ 
nature. The same address must be placed on the envelope that 
is written on the letter. 


The Salutation of a letter contains the opening words 
of respect or affection. 


FORMS OF SALUTATION. 


In business letters or letters to strangers: 

jQoa/v s& lA/,— CyuYhLU/yru/rv ,— 

Thxxdxx/rvv,— jQoa/v Thxxdxx/yvv,— 

jQxxx/v j3'iAs &,— RoxKAX/nxh^tA/,— 


90 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


In letters to relatives or friends: 

jdt/ClA/ lYlxy$\AA /,— 

TR/bp cUxxA/ jSUJaA /,— 
jCUxxA/ 'WtXEixxmv,— 
jdexxA/ CLu/nAs <fCcutt /,— 

£UxiA/ TYVu — 

jdexiA/ &L , uvbp,— 

The Body of a letter consists of whatever the writer 
may say to the person or persons to whom the letter is 
written. It follows the salutation. 

The Conclusion of a letter contains the closing words 
of respect or affection and the name of the writer. 
FORMS OF CONCLUSION. 

For business letters: 

IjxMAAA' t/UjJsLjs, 
hjxVU/b&y TH/l/bp t/buXO-p, 
hjxMAAA/ 

'txdjdtXt/bp xpcvuAA/, 

For letters to relatives or friends: 

1jxMA/u toAM/rbcp dxuAxphfct'V, 

OJXVUAA', 

l/tA/bp ^TU2^vl/bp, 

UXMXA/ fdbt/Vbcl/, 

C/imA/ ^pcvuAA-, 

IlxvuAA/ 


LETTER WRITING. 


91 


EXERCISES. 

Write headings for five letters, all different. Write 
addresses to be used in letters written to— 

a boy, a married lady, 

a girl, an unmarried lady, 

a physician, a business firm, 

a minister, a business man. 

Write salutations for letters to: 

Your teacher, Your mother, 

Your sister, Your cousin, 

Your uncle, One of your classmates, 

A stranger who is a lady, A business firm. 

Write conclusions for letters to the same persons to 
whose letters you have just written the salutations. 

MODEL LETTERS. 

32C|0 SoaaaXL CUk/., 

r \Ybay\jy < ^, I ^00. 

lOUyoAs 7lLa/m/rmo— 

S 'iaxixXua L tfvto cvfcxp 

bxipo tt/i^mx/ri/Cp a /v\xL j^ou/nxt 
Co-oUu/rv jQXcit/ a/ruL tfiiAs cpi/ilA/ 

u><x/i/ti/Yvcp oX- t bjo cUyjoot- to r rvJuX 
'YYXAj. S tInyOUXjJvt X- C^LoXb It/i/TUct 
t/W t^lX/TTl/ ClA^ X UXlA' TVoi- QAAj- 

tcu/w J) U>(OuXct ayVU/XHy tocla/bp. 


92 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


J) hxxAs <x> jalXoA^wtX-t 7 u/jo. 
cxvrutu/cXoA/ tolct TvUy £woyyU/ t/w- 


t iKaaXa/yxx^ jxxxitk/ aAouX- CA/oXo-I 

J!oA/cIaam ILo, QA^xmx^aAbtey a /rub 
BloooriAoax^toTv; a/mt tXu^ 'yuaaMu- 
Xoa^ ojyjA'uxt to Lc/mxt rwo a/n/Lp 
VY\&/^aj^A/rus \\ju fvcuct. 

c3l"U/ eowvvtVLp tA> n>eAA^ Xtciiu/J 
tt^uX ruouo. ^i/jojao^ tX- bAA/YY\A' 

t(J^AAlAAx}lr^ £u> to CU CpL/l!/' U>luO' 

1&/ ti/uxt o|/ tooXimx^ aX- tXu/ 
XxmaA^A' t/w cu f>Xcp c^X/bp. JX- 
$u^yyvuxt Xo'uaX- m to tool?/ ouX- 


o|/ tX^ caA/ u>Xnxtouo a/mt (UA/ 
trU/ c^A^e/w j^uXclA/ a/mt u/oocUi'. 

JI.o/vyv ti/uxt a/mt £dXey|a/bp, £u> 
J) ft/wouo "t^ou/ uottt uxxmaA^ tAX&/ 

&XuovX- titteA. J! umXL tlA^ to 

u>4ttt/ mx>'U/ toTrioVu>u>. 



Thyuv. Ct. 16 . (XuAtt/vv, 
CJtu/axpo, c9tt. 


LETTER WRITING. 


\2T\ C/m/vvuvtl- 

£Ua1mjxs^jm, Slo-xixv, < ^aajy\Aj H, I cjOO. 

3to CL. 3'ta/max^a/vv Co., 

.2tolo dJalModv Qyv-o., 

Cldeocjo, 

QoKvttomon/:— 

PtcxUU/ su/wct mo 

I “3tuy Ttloltdvcp. ojy JtHwi/," 

(dp Poof, cLCe/rvVi^ j^oIm/vv; 

I “SaiitA/ otou/t (Xa/ttyO'iA'," 
Wp CLtay liJa Ao, do. ext.; 

I ‘‘CyuxxA- QyrnX/Wioyriy JItuLuA^- 
t/UUA/," 1/ot. I, dotty. 

uddv ttxAX/ tooltA/ j!oV 
'mAjy ouyyv Ltt-AxxA/bp. <J! TIOtO 

txVXKy tu>4/tO/txjy jCaKy OotuyTTUyfiiy 

l/W tt-. PtiXXA^y tiOnxL t-'Xjy ttuy 

(XoOOX/ldxi/VV C. O'. jQy. 

djyOU/b&y t'lyUyPlJy, 

CLtt-iAyt Qa c3aXtotL. 


94 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


1. Write a letter of friendship to some relative in 
another city. 

2. Write a business letter to A. C. McClurg & Co., 
215 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ills., ordering the following 
books for the little library which your father is helping 
you to obtain: 1 Ellis’s “Stories from American History,” 
cloth; 1 “Early History Stories of North and South 
America,” cloth; 1 “Black Beauty,” cloth. 

3. Write a business letter to the Vaughan Seed Co., 
84 Randolph St., Chicago, Ills., ordering 1 pkt. Sweet 
Peas, 1 pkt. Dwarf Nasturtiums, 1 pkt. Four O’Clocks, 
for your flower garden. Enclose forty cents to pay for 
them. 

To the Teacher: 

Only one letter should be assigned for a lesson. The pupils 
should be required to point out the parts of each letter, and to 
show where replies or packages should be sent in answer to the let¬ 
ters. The teacher should explain about paragraphing and indi¬ 
cate the reasons why the parts of a letter are arranged as they 
are. Punctuation, capitalizing, spelling and penmanship should 
be taught mostly by example. 

4. Write a letter to Perry Mason & Co., Boston, 
Mass., enclosing $1.75 and renewing your subscription 
to the Youth’s Companion for one year from Jan. 1, 
1900. 

5. Write a letter to the Century Co., Union Square, 
N. Y., directing them to change the address of your 
copy of “St. Nicholas” from one place to another place. 

6. Write a letter to a friend at a distance, describ¬ 
ing your school. Tell the number of pupils, the studies 
you have and any other things that are of special 
interest to you. 



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( 95 ) 


DANCE OE THE NYMPHS. 









COROT. 


97 


COROT. 

Jean Baptiste Camille Corot was born in Paris, July 
20, 1796. He was the gentlest of painters, the most 
lovable of men, so high-minded in his work, so true to 
his friends that his memory is ever held in tender rever¬ 
ence. 

This great soul’s childhood was passed amid common 
surroundings. His father was a barber and his mother 
a dressmaker. But there must have been gentle blood 
indeed in this mother since she helped the little Jean 
to accomplish so much. 

The spirit of love and the spirit of work dwelt side 
by side in this youth. Yet many, many years he toiled 
at his chosen profession unknown and poor. Up to his 
fiftieth year he could scarcely find a purchaser for his 
pictures. 

At length, however, he came to be appreciated by 
art lovers, and his friends began to notice that he was 
a great artist. He was called the leader of the new 
school of landscape painting. Artists called him Pere 
Corot, and he was truly a father to all in distress; he 
never turned away a troubled soul from his door. When 
his friend Millet died, he gave Madame Millet $3,000 to 
help her out of financial trouble. 

This beautiful picture, the Dance of the Nymphs, is 
one of his many silvery landscapes. In his early life 
when the rest of the family slept, Corot often remained 
leaning out of the window contemplating the sky and the 
trees. In these days he was absorbing the grandeur of 
nature until, filled with the beauties of the outer world, 
he painted his pictures with this inner light. This pic¬ 
ture is full of the rare beauty of summer time. The 


98 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


forest is peopled with the wood-nymphs; we can almost 
imagine their play to be, “Ring Around the Roses.” 
Some one has said of Corot: “He could invest every 
landscape with a romanticism and charm which were 
wonderful.” 

Like our own sweet poet Whittier, the poet-painter 
Corot never married. He loved all people and was well 
beloved. When he died in 1875, the world mourned. 


Becoming Young Again. 

A lady had a little daughter about five years old, who 
loved her mother and grand-mother equally well. On 
the birthday of the latter, the mother asked her little 
daughter Emma (that was her name) to pray to God that 
he would bless dear grandmother, and that she might 
become very old. Emma looked at her mother in sur¬ 
prise. The mother noticed the look of her child, and 
asked again: “Well, will you not pray to God that your 
grandmother may become older?” The little girl an¬ 
swered with child-like simplicity; “Dear mother, grand¬ 
ma is already very old; I should rather pray to God that 
she may become young again.” 


Be good, my child, and let who will be clever; 

Do noble deeds, not dream them all day long, 
And so make life, death and that vast forever 
One grand, sweet song. 


—Charles Kingsley. 




CHAPTER IV. 


INFLECTION. 

1. This boy is younger than the other boys. 

2. The host and hostess greeted us. 

3. He was there, for I saw him. 

4. I am strong , but you are stronger. 

5. I see it now, and I saw it yesterday. 

What words in these sentences show a change 
in meaning by a change in form ? What word in 
(3) has different forms to show a difference in its* 
use —as subject and as object of a verb? 

Words that change in form to denote different 
meanings or uses, are said to be inflected. Infection 
means bending into a different shape. 

Inflection is a change in the form of a word to 
adapt it to a change in its meaning or use. 

Only nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and 
adverbs are inflected. 


C. 



100 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


FORMS OF NOUNS. 


Number-Forms. 


The booh is new. 

The leaf withers. 

The lady has gone. 
The man is working. 


The boohs are new. 

The leaves wither. 

The ladies have gone. 
The men were working. 


Can you tell by the form of each noun used 
above whether it denotes one or more than one ? 
Name the nouns that denote one. Name those that 
denote more than one. 


The form of a word by which it denotes one or 
more than one, is called number. 

A word which denotes one is in the singular 
number. 

A word which denotes more than one is in the 

plural number. 

Most nouns are inflected for number. The fol¬ 
lowing are the general rules for forming the plural 
of nouns : 

1. The plural of most nouns is formed by adding 
s to the singular ; as, 

boy girl horse roof piano 
boys girls horses roofs pianos 


FORMS OF NOUNS. 


101 


2. The plural of nouns ending in x , s, z , sh , 
and c/i (soft), is formed by adding es to the sin¬ 
gular ; as, 

ax kiss dish bench adz 

axes kisses dishes benches adzes 

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant 
are made plural by changing y to i and adding es; as, 

fly lady lily fairy 

1 lies ladies likes faines 

If a vowel precedes the final y, the word is made 
plural simply by adding s ; as, 

day turkey valley delay 

days turkeys valleys delays 

4. Some nouns ending in / or fe are made 
plural by changing / to v and adding es ; as, 

leaf wife wolf knife 

leaves wives wolves knives 

Besides those given, the following nouns are made 
plural according to rule 4 ; other nouns ending in 
/ are made plural by adding s ; 


calf 

beef 

elf 

life 

half 

thief 

self 

loaf 

staff 

sheaf 

shelf 

wharf 

Some 

nouns ending 

in o are 

made plural by 


adding es ; as, hero, heroes. 


102 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


The most common nouns following rule 5 are : 


echo 

motto 

cargo 

hero 

negro 

potato 

tomato 

tornado 

calico 

buffalo 

volcano 

mosquito 

The plural of the 

following 

nouns is formed 

irregularly : 




man 

foot 

ox 

child 

men 

feet 

oxen 

children 

tooth 

mouse 

goose 

woman 

teeth 

mice 

geese 

women 


EXERCISE. 


I. — Form 

the plural of each 

of the following 

nouns by adding s or es 

f 


sea 

fox 

shoe 

scarf 

glass 

cliff 

waltz 

ostrich 

artist 

guide 

motto 

monarch 

potato 

bridge 

circus 

spoonful 

soldier 

cupful 

witness 

handkerchief 

II. — Use 

each of the following nouns in sen- 

tences, first in 

the singular, then in the plural: 

way 

joy 

sky 

ally 

buoy 

duty 

ruby 

alley 

story 

artery 

daisy 

monkey 

donkey 

display 

Sunday 

mystery 

century 

balcony 

chimney attorney 


FORMS OF NOUNS. 


103 


III. —Change the italicized nouns in the follow¬ 
ing sentences to the plural form, and make such 
other changes in the sentences as are necessary: 

1. The Turk wears a fez. 

2. Put the dagger in its sheath. 

3. A galley is a low, flat vessel. 

4. The buggy has a broken shaft. 

5. The foot of the goose is webbed. 

6. A bundle of wheat is called a sheaf. 

7. The atlas contains a map of the country. 

8. The tomato was once thought unfit to eat. 

Gender-Forms. 

Obey your father and your mother. 

The hunter killed a lion and a lioness. 

The Icing is dead and the queen reigns. 

What nouns used above denote the sex of the 
objects which they name? Which name objects of 
the male sex ? Which name objects of the female 
sex ? 

The form of a word by which it denotes sex is 
called gender. Gender means hind , or sex. 

Words which denote males are of the masculine 
gender. 

Words which denote females are of the feminine 

gender. 


104 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


A few nouns are inflected to distinguish sex ; as, 

host hero widow Paul 

hostess \\Qvoine widows Pau line 

Different words are used to distinguish sex ; as, 


boy 

wife 

duck 

stag 

girl 

husband 

drake 

hind 


EXERCISE. 


I. — Write opposite each of the 
word of opposite gender : 

following words 

son 

lad 

cow 

beau 

man 

cock 

horse 

wizard 

aunt 

Jesse 

sister 

madam 

bride 

goose 

nephew 

bachelor 

maiden 

master 

landlord 

gentleman 


II. — Form the feminine of each of the follow¬ 
ing nouns by changing its termination : 


heir 

Jew 

czar 

actor 

tiger 

duke 

negro 

songster 

governor 

prince 

emporer 

murderer 

Joseph 

shepherd 

enchanter 


III. — Write three sentences containing nouns of 
the masculine gender ; three containing nouns of the 
feminine gender. 


FORMS OF NOUNS. 


105 


Case-Forms. 

The home of the man was sold. 

The knives of the boys are dull. 

Have you seen the. books of the children ? 

Which of the nouns used above names the 
owner of the house ? Which names the owners of 
the knives ? Which names the owners of the books ? 
What preposition is used in each sentence to show 
the relation of ownership between the owner and what 
is owned ? 

The relation of ownership may be expressed, 
without the preposition, by changing the form of 
the noun which names the owner. Thus : 

The man's home was sold. 

The boys' knives are dull. 

Have you seen the children's books ? 

Notice the changes that are made in the nouns 
to make them show ownership. 

The form of a word by which it shows its rela¬ 
tion to other words is called case. 

Words which show the relation of ownership, 
or possession , are in the possessive case. 

Nouns are inflected to show relation only in the 
possessive case. 


106 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


The possessive case of nouns is formed : 

1. By adding apostrophe and s (’s) to singular 
nouns and to plural nouns not ending in s ; as, 

girl’s dress George’s book lady’s bonnet 
men’s gloves children’s hour ivoman’s work 

2. By adding only the apostrophe ( ’ ) to plural 
nouns ending in s ; as, 

girls’ dresses ladies’ bonnets 

hoys’ school teachers’ meeting 

EXERCISE. 

I. — Use nouns in the possessive case instead of 
the parts italicized in the following sentences : 

1. The tongues of cats are rough. 

2. Beware of the nest of the hornet. 

3. The tusks of elephants are ivory. 

4. We keep clothing for men and boys. 

5. The feathers of the turkey are glossy. 

6. Mt. Vernon was the home of Washington. 

7. Have you read the fables written by Aesop ? 

8. The house owned by Dr. Blank is for sale. 

9. A monument for the soldiers will be built. 

10. Cloaks suitable for ladies and misses for sale here. 

II. The crown that is worn by Queen V.ctoria is set with 
costly jewels. 


FORMS OF NOUNS. 


107 


II. — Change each of the italicized nouns in the 
following sentences to the plural possessive form ; 
make such other changes as are necessary: 

1. Where are the girVs hats? 

2. A horse's hoof is horny. 

3. My brother's store is closed. 

4. The bird's songs are enjoyed. 

5. Did you see the boy's mother? 

6. The baby's carriage is broken. 

7. The buffalo's horns are short. 

8. A monkey's eyes are bright. 

9. Our uncle's children are our cousins. 

10. You will find a hornet's nest there. 

11. A child's manners shows its training. 

12. Nothing could be seen of the thief's tracks. 

13. The fox's bark was heard in the distance. 

III. — Write the singular and plural possessive 
forms of each of the following nouns : 


fly 

box 

ox 

boy 

pony 

fish 

waif 

wolf 

watch 

dwarf 

horse 

negro 

mouse 

eagle 

woman 

donkey 

thrush 

society 

attorney 

mosquito 


IY.—Write three sentences containing singular 
nouns in the possessive case ; three containing plural 
nouns in the possessive case. 


108 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 


Number-Forms. 


I am here. 

Did you see him ? 
She gave it to me. 


We are here. 

Did you see them ? 
They gave them to us. 


Which of the pronouns used above denote one ? 
Which denote more than one? Which, then, are in 
the singular number ? Which in the plural number ? 

Personal pronouns are inflected to denote number. 

The number of a pronoun must be the same as 
that of its antecedent ; as, 

A boy was here. He left a note. 

Where is the bird ? It has flown. 

The girls came, but they have gone. 

The children took their books with them. 

Two singular antecedents connected by and gen¬ 
erally require a plural pronoun ; as, 

John and Charles have their books open. 

Ellen and Lucy take their lunch with them. 

Two singular antecedents connected by or or nor 
require a singular pronoun ; as, 

Either John or Charles has his book' open. 

Neither Ellen nor Lucy takes her lunch with her. 


Forms of pronouns. 


ioO 

The singular form of pronoun should be used 
after each, every, either, neither, not one, any one, 
etc. Thus : 

Each of the girls took her books home. 

Every one of the boys failed in his lesson. 

Neither of these books has all its leaves. 

Either of the women will do her part. 

Not one of the men does as much as he can. 

Has any one of the pupils forgotten to bring his 
books with him ? 


Gender-Forms. 

She went away. 

I have not seen him. 

He gave the book to her. 

Which of the pronouns used above show by 
their forms that they denote males ? Which show 
that they denote females ? Which, then, are of the 
masculine gender? Which of the feminine gender? 

Two personal pronouns have gender forms. 

The gender of a pronoun must be the same as 
that of its antecedent ; as, 

When Mary left, she gave me her books. 

The king expects his subjects to support him. 

Every woman contributed as much as she could. 

The man was chopping wood, and he cut his foot. 


iio 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


When the gender of the antecedent is indefinite, 
the masculine form of the pronoun is used ; as, 

Each one of them did his best. 

Everybody must look out for himself. 

There is no one but has his troubles. 

If any one wants to go, let him raise his hand. 

Person-Forms. 

I am ready. 

Are you going ? 

He sent it to her. 

Which of these pronouns represents the speaker ? 
Which represents the person spoken to ? Which two 
represent persons spoken of ? Which represents a 
thing spoken of.? Which, then, is of the first person? 
Which of the second ? Which are of the third ? 

Personal pronouns are inflected to denote person. 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
person. The antecedent of a pronoun of the first 
person is the name of the person speaking ; that of 
a pronoun of the second person is the name of the 
person spoken to ; that of a pronoun of the third 
person the name of the person or thing spoken of; as, 

/, John, saw these things. 

Arthur, you must help me. 

The boy has a rabbit. He feeds it leaves. 


FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 


Ill 


Case-Forms. 

I am ready, send me. 

We saw him, but he did not see us. 

They called for her , and she went with them. 

Did John leave his pencil on your desk ? 

Which of these pronouns are used as subjects 
of verbs ? Which as objects of verbs ? Which as 
objects of prepositions ? Which denote ownership ? 
Notice the changes in form to show the different 
relations. 

The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 
The object of a verb or of a preposition is in the 
objective ,case. Words which denote ownership, as 
we have learned, are in the possessive case. 

Most personal pronouns are inflected to denote 
the nominative, the objective, and the possessive case. 

Pronouns used as complements of copulative 
verbs are in the nominative case ; as, 

It is I. 

This is he. 

That was she. 

I think these are they . 

Was it we that you called? 

It may have been she who came. 


112 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


The relative and interrogative pronoun who , is 
inflected for case ; as, 

I see a boy who is idle. 

This is the girl whose father died. 

The man ivhom you describe was here. 

Who is going ? i 

Whose are these books ? 

Whom did you call ? 

Declension of Pronouns. 

We have found that pronouns have number, 
gender, person, and case forms. The orderly ar¬ 
rangement of the inflections of a pronoun is called 
its declension. Thus : 




Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

First 

J Singular. 

.1 

my or mine 

me 

Person. 

[ Plural . 

...we 

our or ours 

us 

Second 

f Singular. 

... thou 

thy or thine 

thee 

Person. 

[ Plural. 

... ye or you 

your or yours 

you 



f Sing. Masc... 

...he 

his 

him 

Third 


Sing. Fem... 

...she 

her or hers 

her 

Person. 

< 

Singular. 

... it 

its 

it 



Plural. 

... they 

their or theirs 

them 

Singular or Plural ... 

...who 

whose 

whom 


The pronouns you, your , and yours are used in 
the singular, though plural in form. 












FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 


113 


The forms thou, thy, thine, and ye are not 

used in ordinary speech, but in what is called solemn 
discourse, as in prayer and some kinds of poetry. 

The possessive forms, my, our, thy, your, her, 
their, are used before nouns ; when no noun is 
expressed, mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, and theirs 
are used ; as, 

This is my hat. This hat is mine. 

Is that her cloak. Is that hers ? 

That is your pencil. That pencil is yours. 

These are our books. These books are ours. 

A pronoun used as the subject of a verb or as 
the complement of a copulative verb, is in the 
nominative case. 

A pronoun used as the object of a verb or of 
a preposition, is in the objective case. 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
person, gender, and number. 

EXERCISE. 

I.—Determine the number, gender, person, and 
case of each pronoun in the following sentences : 

1. He and I are brothers. 

2. My friend took her and me. 

3. We thought that it was she. 


114 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


4. You cannot go, nor they either. 

5. She can do the work as well as they. 

6. There is the book. Please hand it to him. 

7. There is no ill-feeling between her and me. 

8. He is taller than I, but I am older than he. 

9. You, he, and I, are members of the same class. 

10. Bees gather honey for themselves, and men rob 

them of it. 

II. — Choose the correct form of pronoun, and 
then repeat or copy each sentence several times : 

1. John and (I, me) will go. 

2. It is (I, me) that am reciting. 

3. You are older than (we, us). 

4. You can write as well as (he, him). 

5. Will you take William and (I, me ) ? 

6. It was (he, him) that went past. 

7. I do not think that is (she, her). 

8. Do you suppose it was (they, them ) ? 

9. Was it (we, us) you wanted to see? 

10. I was playing with Alice and (she, her). 

11. They invited (she, her), but not (I, me). 

12. Give the flowers to (he, him) and (she, her). 

13. Was it not Mary and (she, her) who called? 

14. The invitation is for (he, him) and (I, me). 

15. It was (she, her) and (I, me) that were whispering. 

16. There were present only (they, them) and (I, me). 

17. They asked my friend and (I, me ) if we could walk 
as fast as (they, them). 


FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 


115 


HI.—Use in each blank the correct form of who : 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 


6 . 


7. 

8 . 
9. 

10 . 


11 . 

12 . 


— was here? 

— did you see? 

— was it that came? 

— did the boy strike? 

With — were you walking. 

At — house is she staying? 

To — is the letter directed ? 

I will send a boy — is honest. 

I will send a boy — you can trust. 

The man — was here has gone. 

The man — you saw was my father. 

The woman — died was one — all loved. 


IY. — Fill blanks with pronouns of correct num¬ 
ber and gender: 

1. Not one of us did — best. 

2. No one should neglect — work. 

3. All the pupils had — lessons. 

4. Each of the pupils had — lessons. 

5. Every tree is known by — fruit. 

6. Some man or boy has lost — hat. 

7. If any one knows, — must not tell. 

8. Everyone must learn — lesson for — . 

9. Let anyone guess this riddle if — can ? 

10. Neither one of the girls brought — lunch. 

11 . I will let each of you recite in — turn. 

12. If Ned or Frank is whispering, — must remain. 

13. If Ned and Frank are whispering, — must remain. 


116 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


FORMS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

Mary is hind. I have a short stick. 

Jane is hinder. You have a shorter stick. 

Ruth is hindest. He has the shortest stick. 

What quality has each of the girls ? [ Kindness.] 

How many forms of the adjective hind are used to 
express different degrees of the quality ? Which 
form denotes merely the quality ? Which a higher 
degree of the quality ? Which the highest degree of 
the quality? What adjective is changed in form to 
express different degrees in the length of the sticks ? 
Which form expresses the quality alone ? Which a 
lower degree of the quality ? Which the lowest 
degree of the quality ? 

The change in the form of an adjective to express 
different degrees of quality, is called comparison. 

The form of an adjective which expresses merely 
the quality, as hind , short , is the positive degree. 

The form of an adjective which expresses a higher 
or lower degree of the quality in one object than in 
another, as hinder , shorter , is the comparative degree. 

The form of an adjective which expresses the 
highest or lowest degree of the quality, as hindest , 
shortest , is the superlative degree. 


FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. 


117 


Adjectives are compared regularly by adding r 
or er to the positive to form the comparative ; st or 
est to the positive to form the superlative ; as, 


wise 

wiser 

wisest 

swift 

swifter 

swifted 

small 

smaller 

smaller 

A few adjectives are compared irregularly ; as. 

good 

better 

best 

little 

less 

least 

had or ill 

worse 

worst 

much or many more 

most 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are usually 
not inflected, but are compared by placing before 
them the adverbs more or less for the comparative, 
most or least for the superlative ; as, 

honest 

more honest 

most honest 

truthful 

more truthful 

most truthful 

honorable 

less honorable 

least honorable 


Note. — A word of two syllables is compared regularly, when 
the terminations can be added to it without making an awkward 
word ; as, pretty, prettier, prettiest; noble, nobler, noblest. 

A few qualifying adjectives are not compared; 
as round , square , equal , chief, principal. 


118 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


The comparative form of an adjective is used 
when comparing two objects, the superlative form 
when comparing more than two ; as, 

Which is older , John or Frank ? 

Which is oldest , John, Frank, or Tom ? 

The young man is taller than his father, and the 
tallest of three brothers. 

Only two adjectives — this and that —are inflected 
for number; as, 

This man works. These men work. 

That girl is studying. Those girls are studying. 

Be careful to use the right number form of the 
adjective with the singular nouns sort and kind ; as, 

This [not these~\ kind of apples grows here. 

I do not like that [not those~\ sort of people. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

Most adverbs that admit of comparison are com¬ 
pared by the use of more and most , or less and 
least ; as, 

quickly ^quickly £},„ickly 

distinctly distinctly distinctly 


FORMS OF ADVERBS. 


119 


A few adverbs are inflected for comparison; as, 


soon 

soone?’ 

soon est 

often 

oftener 

oftenes£ 

few adverbs are irregularly compared 

well 

better 

best 

much 

more 

most 

little 

less 

least 

far 

farther 

farthest 

badly or ill 

worse 

ivorst 

EXERCISE. 



I. — Determine the degree of each qualifying 
adjective in the following sentences : 

1. Truth is stranger than fiction. 

2. Diamonds are the costliest gems. 

3. Of the two roads, choose the shorter. 

4. John is the youngest of five brothers. 

5. Empty vessels make the loudest noise. 

6. Which is larger, Illinois or Missouri? 

7. Which is largest, Texas, California, or New York? 

8. Which has the sweeter odor, the violet or the rose ? 

9. By persistent effort, the hardest task becomes easy. 

10. Julia is the older and the more domestic of the two. 

11. South Carolina is a small state, Delaware is smaller 
than South Carolina, and Rhode Island is the smallest state 
in the Union. 


120 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


II. — Compare each of the following adjectives : 


few 

soft 

rich 

able 

fine 

brave 

foolish 

cruel 

happy 

bright 

patient 

unkind 

useful 

formal 

graceful 

wealthy 

fertile 

careless 

handsome 

beautiful 


III. —Choose the correct form in each sentence : 

1. I prefer (this, these) kind of pencils. 

2. Were you weighed on (that, those) scales? 

3. I do not trust (that, those) sort of friends. 

4. Of all lakes, Superior is the (larger, largest). 

5. Which is (taller, tallest), Harry, Ned, or Tom? 

6. (That, those ) sort of companions will benefit you. 

7. Do you want some of (this, these) kind of apples? 

8. Which do you like (better, best), spring or fall? 

9. Which is (more, most) desirable, health or wealth? 

10. The (younger, youngest) of the two girls is the 
(prettier, prettiest). 

IV. — Determine which of the italicized words 
are adjectives, and which adverbs ; tell the degree 
of each : 


You came latest. 

I ate breakfast early. 

The girl is less than I. 

This is the fastest train. 

He spoke longer than usual. 
We walked farther to-day. 


You are the latest arrival. 

I ate an early breakfast. 

The man works less now. 

This train runs fastest. 

I want the longer string. 
They live in the farther house. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


121 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


Number and Person Forms. 


work s 


The child « 


studies 
is busy 
was late 
has a pen 


The children < 


work 
study 
are busy 
were late 
have pens 


Which of these verbs are used with a singular 
subject ? Which with a plural subject ? Notice the 
changes in the form of the verbs. 

A verb may change form to agree with the 
number of its subject, hence verbs are said to have 

number. 


ivork 
study 

I < am busy 
was late 
have a pen 

Which of these verbs are used with a subject of 
the first person ? Which with a subject of the second 
person ? Which with a subject of the third person ? 
Notice the changes in the form of the verbs. 

A verb may change form to agree with the per¬ 
son of its subject, hence verbs are said to have 

person. 


you 


work 

study he 

t she 

are busy Qr 

were late it 

have a pen 


work s 
studies 
is busy 
teas late 
has a pen 









122 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


We see that the verb has few inflections for per¬ 
son and number. The following are all the changes 
in ordinary speech : The verb be has different forms 
— am, is, are , ivas, were — to denote differences in 
the person and number of its subjects ; other verbs 
change form to agree with the person and number 
of their subjects only in the third person singular, 
when have is changed to has, or s or es is added to 
the verb. 

A verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

Two or more singular subjects generally require 
a plural verb if connected by and ; a singular verb 
if connected by or or nor ; as, 

John and James go to school. 

John or James goes to school. 

Mary and her sister have their lessons. 

Neither Mary nor her sister has her lessons. 

When two or more singular subjects connected 
by and have a singular meaning, or are preceded 
by each, every , or no, they require a singular verb; as, 

The soldier and statesman is dead. 

Each boy and girl has a book. 

Every man, woman, and child ivas lost. 

No day and no hour is without its duties. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


123 


Be careful not to violate the preceding rule 
when the position of the subject is changed, or when 
a noun of a different number comes between the 
subject and the verb ; as, . 

1. Yonder come John and James. 

2. Not one of the boys is absent. 

3. Neither of the men works hard. 

4. There go the children from school. 

5. Every one of the pupils lias a pencil. 

6. Each of these expressions is incorrect. 

7. There were left only my brother and I. 

8. Do your father and mother expect to go ? 

9. The appearance of the clouds indicates rain. 

Sometimes the meaning of a word, rather than 
the form, determines whether it should have a sin¬ 
gular or a plural verb ; as, 

1. News is scarce. 

2. No pains icas spared. 

3. A great number were injured. 

4. The number injured icas ten. 

5. The deer are in the park. 

6. The deer is a beautiful animal. 

7. The class [as a whole] is large. 

8. The class [as individuals] are studying. 

9. The “Arabian Nights” icas once his delight. 


124 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 

I. — Choose the correct form of verb in each 
sentence, and tell why it is correct : 

1. (Was, were) you there? 

2. One of those horses (is, are ) lame. 

3. Either of you (is, are ) able to lift it. 

4. (Has, have) Mary and Lucy been ill? 

5. (Was, were) Florence or Fannie here? 

6. Neither of the boys (read, reads) well. 

7. (Is, are) either of your friends coming? 

8. The jury (was, were) divided in opinion. 

9. Which of these sentences (is, are) correct? 

10. Each of the States (has, have) two senators. 

11. No house, no fence, no tree (was, were) left. 

12. What sounds (has, have) each of the vowels ? 

13. Either you or your brother (was, were) there. 

14. Both you and your brother ( was, were ) there. 

15. Here (come, comes) my friend and her husband. 

16. Each man, woman, and child (has, have) duties. 

17. Frank, Robert, and Ned (live, lives) in the city. 

18. Every branch and twig (is, are ) covered with snow. 

19. Neither Ned nor Tom (have, has) (his, their) books. 

20. The fragrance of many flowers (fill, fills) the air. 

21. A variety of pleasing objects (charm, charms) the eye. 

22. The ebb and flow of the tides (was, were) explained. 

23. The jury (has, have) rendered a verdict of guilty. 

24. ( Has, have ) there been many failures in business ? 

25. There (is, are) a book, an apple, and a pencil on 
my desk. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


125 


II. — Change the person or number of each 
italicized word, and make such other changes in the 
sentences as will be necessary : 

1. All men have their faults. 

2. We are industrious pupils. 

3. Are you going to the fair? 

4. She has a slate on her desk. 

5. The bird was building its nest. 

6. There is an apple on the table. 

7. Are the covers of the books blue? 

8. Has there been a wretk on this rock? 

9. The men who do their duty are happy. 

10. The boys help their father in the store. 

11. The man that rows the boat has a strong arm. 

12. The fern seeks the shade and shuns the sunshine. 

13. This is the best exercise that has been written. 

14. At the signal, each of the pupils rises to his feet. 

15. All the girls who have their lessons may be excused. 

16. The trees that grow on the lawn furnish us shade. 

III. — Use the following verbs in sentences ( 1 ) 
with singular subjects, (2) with plural subjects: 


do 

go 

cry 

lay 

run 

see 

play 

deny 

delay 

reply 

perch 

rustle 

march 

creep 

crouch 

screech 

belong 

invade 

tarnish 

prepay. 


126 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Mode-Forms. 


1. I go to school. 5. 

2. I may go to school. 6. 

3. Go to school. 7. 

4. If I go , I will learn. 8. 


John runs. 

John can run. 

Run , John. 

If John run, he will fall. 


In which of these sentences is the action asserted 

as a fact ? In which is it asserted as a possibility ? 

In which is it commanded ? In which is it asserted 

as doubtful, or conditional ? 

• 

The manner in which the verb makes the asser¬ 
tion is called mode. Mode means manner. 

A verb which asserts something as a fact is in 
the indicative mode. 


A verb which asserts something as possible or 
necessary is in the potential mode. 

A verb which asserts a command is in the imper¬ 
ative mode. 

A verb which asserts something as doubtful or 
conditional is in the subjunctive mode. 

The indicative mode is the one most used ; as, 

Time Jlies. Are you going ? 

Caesar conquered . Have you a pencil ? 

Students will learn. Did he learn his lesson ? 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


127 


The potential mode is expressed by the use of 
one of the helping verbs, may, can, must, might , 
could, would, or should, with the simple form of the 
principal verb ; as, 


You way read. 

He can do the work. 
We must study hard. 
John might write better. 


Can you help me ? 
May I ask a favor ? 
Would that he right ? 
They could see the bird. 


The imperative mode is used only with subjects 
in the second person in expressing requests or com¬ 
mands ; as, 

Come to me. Please sing for me. 


The subjunctive mode has almost gone out of 
use in our language. It is used in subordinate 
assertions to express doubt , a supposition contrary to 
fact , or a wish ; as, 

1. If she he there, she will not sing. 

2. Though he fail , he will not despair. 

3. Provided the pupil study , he may remain. 

4. Unless he have friends, he cannot succeed. 

5. If John tell a falsehood, he will be punished. 

6. I would not go, if I were you. 

7. If he were willing, I would help him. 

8. I wish that my mother were here. 


128 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Verbs in the indicative mode are used to express 
what is assumed as a fact ; as, 

1. If he is needy, we must help him. 

2. Though he is lame, he walks fast. 

3. If he was severe, he was not unjust. 

4. If he wishes to see me, he must come here. 

5. If she intends to apply, she must do so soon. 

Tense-Forms. 

1. We play. 4. He goes to school. 

2. We played. 5. He went to school. 

3. We shall play. 6. He will go to school. 

Do the verbs used above express time ? Which 
denote present time ? Which past time ? Which 
future time. 

The form of a verb by which it expresses time 
is called tense. Tense means time. 

All time is divided into present, past, and future; 
hence there are three principal tenses of verbs—the 
present tense, the past tense, and the future tense, s 

The Present Tense of a verb denotes present time. 

The Past Tense of a verb denotes past time. 

The Future Tense of a verb denotes future time. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


129 


They have learned their lessons. 

They had learned their lessons when they came. 

They will (or shall ) have learned their lessons 
before class-time. 

Which of these verbs represents an action as 
completed at the present time ? Which represents 
an action as completed at a certain past time ? 
Which represents an action as completed at a cer¬ 
tain future time ? 

An action completed is 'perfected ; hence we have 
the present-perfect tense, the past-perfect tense, and 
the future-perfect tense. 

The Present-perfect Tense of a verb represents 
an action as completed at the present time. 

The Past-perfect Tense of a verb represents an 
action as completed at a certain past time. 

The Future-perfect Tense of a verb represents an 
action as completed at a certain future time. 

The indicative mode has all of the six tenses. 

The potential mode has four tenses—the present, 
the past, the present-perfect, and the past-perfect. 

The subjunctive mode has two tenses—the present 
and the past. 

The imperative mode has but one tense — the 
present. 


i perative Subjunctive Potential Indicative 

Mode. Mode. Mode. Mode. 


130 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Summary op Mode and Tense Forms. 


< 


Present. love , sing. 

Past. love d, sang. 

Futul ' e . S ^J[ jfoue, sing. 

Present-Perfect.^ave j- loved, sung. 

Past-Perfect. had love d, sung. 

Future-Perfect.| have love d, sung. 


Present 


may 
• can 
must 


< 


Past 


Present-Perfect. 


might 
could 
' would 
should 
may 

. can 

must 


love, sing . 

have love d, sung. 


might "1 

Past-Perfect.would f ^ ave loved, sung. 

should J 


Present . love, sing . 

Past. love d, sang. 


Present 
5 ' 


love, sing . 

















FORMS OF VERBS. 


131 

We see by the table that there are few inflec¬ 
tions for mode and tense. The only changes in the 
verb itself are in the past tense, indicative and sub¬ 
junctive, and in the perfect tenses, indicative and 
potential. 

The imperative mode has but one form, the 
unchanged form, or root , of the verb. 

The subjunctive mode has forms different from 
the indicative only in the following cases : 

1. In the present tense be is used instead of 
am , is , and are ; in the past tense, were is used 
instead.of was. [See page 157.] 

« 

2. Have is used instead of has , and other verbs 
drop s , or es , in the third person singular, present 
tense. [See page 107.] 

The form of a verb used after has , have, or 
had in the perfect tenses, is called the past-participle 
of the verb. 

The three forms, the present-indicative the past- 
indicative, and the past-participle , are called the 
principal parts of a verb ; as, 

Present Indicative. Past Indicative. Past Participle. 

live lived lived 

see saw seen 

Note. — The regular arrangement of all the different forms of 
a verb is called its conjugation. 


132 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Be careful not to use the past-participle for the 
past tense of the verb, or the reverse ; as, 

I saw [not seen~\ him yesterday. 

I have never seen [not saw~\ him. 

I Jc?ieiv [not hnowed~\ he would come. 

We should have written [not wrote] our exercises. 
He never did [not done~\ such a thing in his life. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

The verb itself has few inflections, but there are 
certain helping verbs, as the table shows, which are 
used with the principal verb to express the different 
modes and tenses. 

Verbs used to help form the different modes and 
tenses of other verbs, are called auxiliary verbs. 
Auxiliary means helping. 

The principal auxiliaries are : 

Present, - do , be, have , shall, will , may, can, must. 
Past, - did, was, had, should, would , might, could. 

Do, be, have, and will , are also used as principal 
verbs. 

Note. — The combination of the principal and the auxiliary 
verb is sometimes called a verb-plirase or verb-term. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


133 


Always use the proper auxiliary : 

May expresses permission or possibility ; as, 

Mother says I may go. 

The sun may shine to-morrow. 

The Governor may pardon the convict. 

Can expresses ability; as, 

He can read. I think I can go. 

Must expresses necessity ; as, 

He must go. It must he true. 

Might and could , the past tenses of may and 
can , follow the rules for may and can ; as, 

He might come (possibility). 

He could come (ability). 

Shall , in the first person, expresses simple 
futurity ; in the second and third persons, compul¬ 
sion. Will , in the first person, expresses purpose ; 
in the second and third persons, simple futurity; as, 

I shall go (simple futurity). 

You shall go (compulsion). 

He shall go (compulsion). 

I will go ( purpose ). 

You will go ( simple futurity ). 

He will go (simple futurity). 


134 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Should and ivould, the past tenses of shall and 
will , follow in general the rules governing the uses 
of shall and will ; as, 


I thought I shoidd go. 

I determined I would go. 

I feared he woidd fail. 

I demanded that he should come. 


Do is used as an auxiliary in making the 
emphatic form of a verb, and also in interrogative 
and negative sentences ; as, 


I do try. 

He did come. 

We do feel sorry. 


Did you write this ? 

I do not know how. 
We did not hear you. 


Do you live here ? He does not want to go. 

Be is used as an auxiliary in making the pro¬ 
gressive form of a verb ; as, 

I am reciting. 

You were writing. 

He is studying his lesson. 

Fannie has been riding this morning. 

The boy should have been solving his problems. 

Note. — Be is also used as an auxiliary in making the pas¬ 
sive form of a verb. 


KINDS OF VERBS. 


135 


Regular and Irregular Verbs. 

They shout aloud. I break the stick. 

They shouted aloud. I broke the stick. 

They have shouted aloud. I have broken the stick. 

What forms of the verb shout are here given ? 
What forms of the verb break ? Which of these 
verbs forms its past tense and past participle by 
adding ed to the simple form, or root ? Which does 
not form its past tense and past participle by adding 
ed to the root ? 

Verbs which form their past tense and past 
participle by adding d or ed to the root, are regular 
verbs. 

Verbs which do not form their past tense and 
past participle by adding d or ed to the root, are 

irregular verbs. 

Note. — For a list of irregular verbs and their principal parts, 
see page 158. 

EXERCISE. 

I.—Tell the mode and tense of each verb (or 
verb-term) in the following sentences ; tell which 
are principal and which auxiliary verbs : 

1. I do see it. 4. He was reading. 

2. Hope cheers. 5. The sun has set 

3. I will not go. 6. Napoleon fought, 


136 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


7. 

He could tell us. 

19. 

If it rain, I shall stay. 

8. 

Can I assist you? 

20. 

Shall I bring it to you? 

9. 

Did the star fall? 

21. 

You should have seen it. 

10. 

I may have lost it. 

22. 

Will you come with me? 

11. 

We furled the sail. 

23. 

I wish that it were done. 

12. 

Study nature’s laws. 

24. 

I intend they shall work. 

13. 

The bells are tolling. 

25. 

The moon will have risen. 

14. 

May we go with you ? 

26. 

He had gone when I came. 

15. 

Have the boys come ? 

27. 

If he be ill, he will not go. 

16. 

You must come soon. 

28. 

If he is poor, he is honest. 

17. 

Look before you leap. 

29. 

If he was slow, he was sure. 

18. 

He does go there often. 

30. 

If he were here, I could go. 


II. —Choose the correct word, or words, in each 
of the following sentences : 

1. Though she (is, be) firm, she is not unkind. 

2. If he (is, be) there, I (will, shall) be surprised. 

3. Though she (was, were) there, I did not see her. 

4. If I (was, were) there, I (would, should) help you. 

6. If the weather (be, is) pleasant, (may, can) we go? 

6. What (would, should) you say if you (was, were) 
asked ? 

7. Though I (be, am) discouraged, I (will, shall) not 
give up. 

8. If he (disobey, disobeys) me, he (will, shall) be 
punished. 

9. If wishes (was, were) horses, beggars (might, 
could) ride. 

10. Unless it (turn, turns) colder, you will not need 
your cloak. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


137 


11. If I (was, were) strong enough, I (could, might) 
help you. 

12. If he (be, is) at home, tell him I (would, should) 
like to see him. 

13. Though the bill ( pass, passes), the law (will, shall) 
not be enforced. 

14. Supposing she (was, were) here, she (would, 
should) be no help to us. 

15. If he (expect, expects) to go with us, he (should, 
would) be making preparations. 

III. — Change the verbs in the following sen¬ 
tences, first to the past tense, then to the future 


tense : 



1 . 

The sun shines. 

6. 

The buds burst. 

2. 

The boys skate. 

7. 

He catches the ball. 

3. 

I cut the apple. 

8. 

She knows the place. 

4. 

I break the stick. 

9. 

The waves dash high. 

5. 

They blast the rock. 

10. 

We study our lessons. 


IV. — Change the tense of the verbs—the present 

to the present-perfect, 

the 

past to the past-perfect, 

the future to the future-perfect : 

1 . 

He reads much. 

6. 

Can you forget it? 

2. 

Should I write? 

7. 

It would not grow there. 

3. 

They go to town. 

8. 

Mary broke her promise. 

4. 

I was busy all day. 

9. 

I shall finish by that time. 

5. 

He will sleep long. 

10. 

A thief may steal the money. 


138 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


V. — Write each of the following sentences ten 
times, using the verb in all the tenses of the indica¬ 
tive and the potential modes ; tell which of the verbs 
are transitive and which intransitive : 


1 . 

We raise our hats. 

7* 

I lie in the hammock. 

2. 

I recite my lesson. 

8. 

I lay the pencil down. 

3. 

They do their duty. 

9. 

Water rises in the well. 

4. 

A boy drowns a cat. 

10. 

John rides the horse home. 

5. 

He knows the poem. 

11. 

The farmer threshes wheat. 

6. 

We sit on the bench. 

12. 

I set the box on the table. 


VI. — Change the verb in each sentence to the 
progressive form, and tell its mode and tense : 

1. I work. We write. He thinks. 

2. It rained hard. They rowed fast. 

3. The pupils had studied their lessons. 

4. The ship will then sail across the sea. 

5. I can get ready. He may deceive you. 

6. The farmer might have hoed the weeds. 

7. In June, she will have taught five years. 

8. The boys had cut and carried wood all morning. 

9. The animal must have watched as we rode along. 

10. The men raised their hats. The river rose to-day. 

11. We set the box on the table. The box sat on the 
table. 

12. The book lies on the desk. I lay the book on 
the desk. 

13. The watch should not lose time. It has run 
regularly. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


139 


VII. — Change each of the following to the 
emphatic, the interrogative, and the negative form : 


You replied. 

We improve. 

He makes hay. 
John skates well. 


It drew the blood. 

Time brings changes. 

They fight for liberty. 

The children copy the words. 


VIII. — Give the principal parts of the following 
verbs ; tell which are regular and which irregular : 


do 

go 

sew see 

lie 


fly 

say 

wear draw 

lay 


fall 

give 

chew fancy 

sit 


pull 

wipe 

leave teach 

set 


begin 

swim 

delay learn 

rise 


cover 

throw 

forget retire 

raise 


IX. —Use 

the principal parts of 

each of 

the 

following verbs 

in sentences : 



eat 

buy 

saw 

tear 


bite 

beat 

draw 

show 


blow 

ring 

take 

know 


bring 

drink 

hurt 

wring 


shake 

write 

came 

choose 


x.— Write 

ten sentences containing verbs in 

the indicative 

mode ; 

ten containing 

verbs in 

the 

potential mode 

; five 

containing verbs 

in the 

sub- 

junctive mode ; 

three containing verbs in the impera- 


tive mode. 


140 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Voice-Forms. 

1. He shot. 

2. He was shot. 

3. Bees make honey. 

4. Honey is made by bees. 

5. John strikes the ball. 

6. The balls are struck by John. 

In which of these sentences are the subjects 
represented as acting ? In which are the subjects 
represented as being acted upon ? Do the verbs 
change form to show whether their subjects act or 
are acted upon? 

The form of a verb which shows whether its 
subject acts or is acted upon is called voice. 

Verbs which represent their subjects as acting 
are in the active voice. 

Vorbs which represent their subjects as being 
acted upon are in the passive voice. 

The passive voice of a verb in any tense is 
formed by using the form of be in that tense with 
the past participle of the verb ; as, 

I am hurt. He mag be appointed. 

You are loved. John was bitten by the dog. 


Note. — Only transitive verbs have voice forms. 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


141 


EXERCISE. 

I-—Change the verbs in the following sentences 
form the active to the passive voice, or the reverse: 

1. Heat expands metals. 

2. Electricity moves the car. 

3. Burglars entered the house. 

4. Flies are caught by spiders. 

5. The work shall be finished for you. 

6. William Penn founded Philadelphia. 

7. Heavy rains have swollen the rivers. 

8. I was very much amused by the story. 

9. Reading good books benefits the mind. 

10. Somebody should attend to the matter. 

11. The steam engine was invented by Watt. 

12. The drowning child was rescued by the dog. 

13. These exercises will be written by the pupils. 

14. These truths are held by us to be self evident. 

15. They found many beautiful shells on the shore. 

16. We are kept alive by food, exercise, and sleep. 

17. Longfellow wrote the beautiful poem “Evangeline.” 

18. The colonists claimed that England taxed them 
unjustly. 

19. In 55 B. C., Britain was invaded by the Romans 
under Julius Caesar. 

20. The Atlantic Ocean is crossed by fast steamers in 
less than seven days. 

21. We call Lincoln the “ Emancipator,” because the 
slaves were liberated by him. 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


142 


II.—Write sentences, using the following verbs 
in the active voice; then change the sentences, 
using the verbs in the passive voice : 

kill build wrote began 

moved learned mends arrested 

caught destroyed defeated discovered 


III. 

— Tell the 

form 

of each of the following 

verb-terms, and use 

each 

in a sentence : 

1 . 

think 

14. 

are reaping 

2. 

brings 

15. 

were defeated 

3. 

fancied 

16. 

is being made 

4. 

can use 

17. 

should be kept 

5. 

do read 

18. 

may have fallen 

6. 

is built 

19. 

will be covered 

7. 

shall ride 

20. 

had been rowing 

8. 

might hear 

21. 

has been raised 

9. 

am working 

22. 

could have heard 

10. 

did recite 

23. 

will have finished 

11. 

has driven 

24. 

must have been earning 

12. 

is raging 

25. 

would have been pleased 

13. 

was stolen 

26. 

should have been attending. 


IY. — Correct the following sentences ; tell why 
the words in italics are incorrect: 


1 . 

Who done that? 

5. 

He laid down to rest. 

2. 

Your dress is tore. 

6. 

Let the box set there. 

3. 

Can I be excused? 

7. 

Will I bring it to you? 

4. 

We shall assist you. 

8. 

Has the dike broke yet? 


FORMS OF VERBS. 


143 


9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20 . 
21 . 
22 . 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 
27. 


I shall do my very best. 

Our club was badly beat. 

I never seen that before. 

My mother says I can go. 

He run as fast as he could. 

The work is not yet began. 

What will we do with this? 

How long has it laid there? 

I should help you, if I could. 

I would have went , if I could. 

We will be gone several days. 

I would like very much to go. 

The paper is laying on the table. 

Is the t£ble standing in the corner? 

I wish I had chose a different seat. 

You should not lay on the ground. 

The leaves were shook off by the wind. 

Set by me here. Sit out a chair for her. 
We would be delighted if you should come. 

SUMMARY OF INFLECTION. 


Words are inflected to show : 

1. Number — the form of a word which ex¬ 
presses one or more than one. 

2. Person — the form of a pronoun which de¬ 
notes the person speaking, the person spoken to, or 
the person or thing spoken of. 


144 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


3. Gender — the form of a noun or a pronoun 
which denotes sex. 

4. Case — the form of a noun or a pronoun 
which shows its relation to other words. 

5. Comparison — the form of an adjective or 
an adverb which shows a greater or less degree of^ 
quality or intensity. 

6. Mode—the manner in which a verb expresses 
being, action, or state. 

7. Tense — the form of a verb which denotes 
the time, or the degree of completeness, of being, 
action, or state. 

8. Voice — the form of a transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 


Nouns are inflected to show... 



Pronouns are inflected to show... 


Number. 

Gender. 

Person. 

Case. 


Adjectives 


} 


Adverbs 


are 


inflected to show J Comparison. 


" Number. 
Person. 


Verbs are inflected to show.< Mode. 


Tense. 
. Voice. 









( 146 ) 


FROM PAINTING BY LANDSEER. 










SAVED. 


147 


SAVED. 

1. Study this picture carefully. 

2. Describe the scene. 

3. What kind of a dog is pictured? 

4. What birds are flying above? 

5. Notice the difference in the sky in this picture 
from that in the picture by Corot, The Dance of the 
Nymphs. 

6. Tell the story as if you had witnessed the rescue. 

7. Relate anecdotes of brave deeds. 

WISHING. 

Do you wish the world were better? 

Let me tell you what to do— 

Set a watch upon your actions, 

Keep them always straight and true. 

Rid your mind of selfish motives, 

Let your thoughts be clean and high; 

You can make a little Eden 
Of the sphere you occupy. 

Do you wish the world were wiser? 

Well, suppose you make a start 
By accumulating wisdom 

In the scrap-book of your heart. 

Do not waste one page on folly; 

Live to learn and learn to live; 

If you want to give men knowledge, 

You must get it ere j^ou give. 

Do you wish the world were happy? 

Then remember, day by day, 

Just to scatter seeds of kindness 
As you pass along the way; 

For the pleasures of the many 
May be ofttimes traced to one, 

As the hand that plants an acorn 
Shelters armies from the sun. 

Note to Teacher : Ella Wheeler Wilcox. 

Study this poem for mood of verbs. 



148 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Two Painters. 

There was once a man who thought he was a great 
painter. One day he wished to paint his hall very beau¬ 
tifully. He spoke to another painter about it. “First,” 
said he, “I shall whitewash it as nicely as possible, and 
then paint it.” His friend, who was a great artist as 
well as a wit, answered mischievously: “Allow me to 
give you a word of advice; you had better paint it first, 
and then whitewash it.” 


A Good Bargain. 

Two men made a journey one day in summer. It 
was a very hot day, and, as they were very tired, they 
bought a horse together. The question now was, who 
shall ride the horse? One then said to the other: “When 
I ride, you shall walk, and when you walk, I will ride;” 
and the other was perfectly satisfied with the bargain! 


Kindness Brings Happiness. 

John and Harry, while on their way to school, saw 
an old lady with a basket of apples, which she was car¬ 
rying to market. Harry proposed throwing the basket 
over when the woman set it down to rest, for it would 
be such fun to see her run after the apples. 

John’s eyes flashed. “No, let us rather ask to carry 
the basket for her,” said he. The woman was very 
thankful when they offered to carry her basket, and 
as she walked behind them it was hard to tell which 
of the three was the happiest. 




CHAPTER V. 


VERBALS : PARTICIPLES — INFINITIVES. 

1. The boy speaks distinctly. 

2. The man speaking is earnest. 

3. A word spoken cannot be recalled. 

4. To speak is not always wise. 

What is the verb in the first sentence? Can 
you find in each of the other sentences a word formed 
from the same verb ? Do speaking , spoken , to speak , 
denote action ? Could they be used alone to assert 
anything. 

Words like speaking , spoken , to speak , which 
denote action without asserting it, are called verbals. 

Verbals may be formed from almost every verb 
in the language. Thus : 


give 

giving 

given 

to give 

think 

thinking 

thought 

to think 

laugh 

laughing 

laughed 

to laugh 



150 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


PARTICIPLES. 

I saw a boy running. 

The bird singing is a thrush. 

The man injured cannot live. 

Name the verbals used above. Does running 
describe boy ? Does singing describe bird ? Does 
injured describe man 9 Since the words running, 
singing, and injured express action and also modify 
the meaning of nouns, they share the nature of what 
two parts of speech ? 

Verbals which share, or participate in, the nature 
of verbs and of adjectives, are called participles. 

A Participle is the form of a verb which shares 
the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

Simple participles are of two kinds : 

1. Present or imperfect, ending in ing; as, 

loving, seeing , walking, sleeping. 

2. Past or perfect, ending usually in d, n, or t; 

as, loved, seen, walked, slept. 

Compound participles are formed by combining 
simple participles with the auxiliaries being, having, 
having been ; as, 

being loved 
having loved 


having been loved 
having been loving 


PARTICIPLES. 


151 


A participle, on account of its verb nature, 
may take : 

1. An adverbial modifier; as, 

The oarsman pulling steadily will win. 
Having worked rapidly, be has finished. 

The tree, firmly rooted , stands the storm. 

2. An object ; as, 

The boy driving the horse is careful. 
Having been plowing corn, he is tired. 

The thief, having stolen the money, escaped. 

3. A complement; as, 

He, being a stranger, was not admitted. 
John, having been ill, is not able to go. 
Having become president, he did his duty. 

A participle may be used : 

1. As a verbal adjective ; as, 

The boat leaving goes north. 

The soldier wounded will die. 

2. As a verbal noun; as, 

Walking is good exercise. 

The boys enjoy skating . 


152 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


3. As an adverbial modifier ; as, 

He came crying . 

They stood amazed. 

4. As a pure adjective ; as, 

The running brook is clear. 

She has a cultivated voice. 

He is kind and forgiving. 

5. As a pure noun ; as, 

The singing of birds delights us. 

We heard the roaring of the waves. 

INFINITIVES. 

To row is tiresome. 

He hopes to improve. 

Our desire is to learn. 

Name the verbals used above. Which one is 
used as the subject of a verb ? Which as object of 
a verb ? Which as complement of a copulative verb ? 
Do to row , to improve , to learn , name actions ? They 
do the work, then, of what part of speech ? 

Verbals used to name actions, forming verbal 
nouns, are called infinitives. 

An Infinitive is the form of a verb having the 
properties of a verb and of a noun. 


INFINITIVES. 


153 


The simple infinitive is the root of the verb 
before which to is generally used ; other infinitives 
are compound. In regard to time, infinitives are : 

1. Present; as, to live , to see , to hope. 

2. Present-perfect; as, to have lived, to have 
seen , to have hoped. 

An infinitive, on account of its verb nature, may 
take : 

1. An adverbial modifier ; as. 

To act honorably is a duty. 

He tries to decide impartially. 

2. An object; as, 

To help others is a pleasure. 

We are commanded to love our enemies. 

3. A complement; as, 

To he cheerful is sometimes difficult. 

The boy seems to have been studious. 

His one desire is to become a soldier. 

An infinitive may be used : 

1. As a verbal noun; as, 

To walk is healthful. 

All boys like to play. 


154 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


2. As an adjective modifier ; as, 

There is a time to play. 

His ability to manage is excellent. 

3. As an adverbial modifier ; as, 

We came to learn . 

I am afraid to go. 

It is too late to return. 

After the verbs bid , dare , let , hear, feel, make, 
need, see, and some others, the to is usually omitted 
before the infinitive ; as, 

I dare not go. Bid him come. 

We saw them start . You need not stay. 

A modifier should not be used between to and 
the infinitive ; as, 

I meant never to do [not to never do] that again. 

You ought at least to be [not to at least be] 
grateful for it. 

Visitors are requested not to handle [ not to not 
handle] the articles. 

And should not be used instead of to before an 
infinitive ; as, 

I must try to go [not try and go]. 

Come to see me [not come and see me]. 


INFINITIVES. 


155 


The present-perfect infinitive should not be used 
where the present infinitive expresses the meaning; as, 

I intended to write [not to have written~\. 

I hoped to he [not to have heen~\ able to go. 

I expected to call [not to have called ] sooner.. 


EXERCISE. 


I.—Name the participles and the infinitives in 
the following sentences, and tell how each is used 
in the sentence ; tell which have objects, which 
complements, and which adverbial modifiers : 


1 . 

2 . 

3 . 

4 . 

5 . 

6 . 

7 . 

8 . 
9 . 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13 . 

14 . 

15 . 


Seeing is believing. 

To despair is to fail. 

Avoid reading hurriedly. 

I do not dare go again. 

She has lessons to learn. 

The dog ran away howling. 

We visited a ruined castle. 

He likes to read good books. 

A sower went forth to sow. 

His ambition is to be elected. 
Telling lies hardens the heart. 

He is too gentle to hurt a fly. 

Be swift to hear, slow to speak. 
The daring are the successful. 
Running water does not stagnate. 


156 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


16. To speak correctly is difficult. 

17. To save time is to lengthen life. 

18. The woman seems to have fainted. 

19. He, being weary, lay down to rest. 

20. There is pleasure in helping others. 

21. The horse driven yesterday is tired. 

22. Having been duly warned, they escaped. 

23. The boat, heavily loaded, left the wharf. 

24. The instinct to hoard money is not noble. 

25. They live in a house overlooking the river. 

26. The branches of the elm are long and drooping. 

27. The child, being much disappointed, began to cry. 

28. As soon as young birds are strong enough to fly, 
they must learn to use their wings. 

II.— Form the present and past participle and 
the present and present-perfect infinitive of each 
of the following verbs : 


sail 

knit 

tell 

fall 

wind 

bend 

drink 

freeze 

whip 

dance 

swing 

satisfy 

regret 

shrink 

strive 

scream 

forgive 

destroy 

borrow 

forsake 


III.—Write sentences, using infinitives (1) as 
subject, ( 2 ) as object of a verb, ( 3 ) as complement 
of a verb, (4) as an adjective, (5) as an adverb. 

IY.—Write three sentences, using a participle 
( 1) as a verbal adjective, ( 2 ) as a verbal noun, ( 3 ) 
as an adverbial modifier. 


f HE PEBBLE AND THE ACORN. 

THE PEBBLE AND THE ACORN. 

“I am a pebble! and yield to none!” 

Were the swelling words of a tiny stone. 

“Nor time nor ages can alter me; 

I am abiding while ages flee. 

The pelting hail and the driveling rain 
Have tried to soften me, long, in vain; 

And the tender dew has sought to melt 
Or touch my heart; but it was not felt. 

“There’s none that can tell about my birth, 

For I’m as old as the big, round earth. 

The children of men arise, and pass 
Out of the world like blades of grass; 

And many a foot on me has trod, 

That’s gone from sight, and under the sod! 

I am a Pebble! but who art thou, 

Rattling along from the restless bough?” 

The Acorn was shocked at this rude salute, 

And lay, for a moment, abashed and mute; 

She never before had been so near 
This gravelly ball, the mundane sphere; 

And she felt, for a time, at a loss to know 
How to answer a thing so coarse and low. 

But to give reproof of a nobler sort 
Than the angry look, or keen retort, 

At length, she said, in a gentle tone: 

“Since it has happened that I am thrown 
From the lighter element, where I grew, 

Down to another, so hard and new, 

And beside a personage so august, 

Abased, I will cover my head in dust, 

And quickly retire from the sight of one 
Whom time, nor season, nor storm, nor sun, 

Nor the gentle dew, nor the grinding heel, 

Has ever subdued, or made to feel!” 

And soon, in the earth, she sank away, 

From the comfortless spot where the Pebble lay. 


158 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


But it was not long ere the soil was broke 
By the peering head of an infant oak: 

And, as it arose, and its branches spread, 

The Pebble looked up, and wondering said: 

“A modest Acorn! never to tell 
What was enclosed in its simple shell! 

That the pride of the forest was folded up 
In the narrow space of its little cup! 

And meekly to sink in the darksome earth, 
Which proves that nothing could hide its worth. 


“And ^h! how many will tread on me, 

To come and admire the beautiful tree, 

Whose head is towering toward the sky, 

Above such a worthless thing as I! 

Useless and vain, a cumberer here, 

I have been idling from year to year; 

But never, from this, shall a vaunting word 
From the humble Pebble again be heard, 

Till something, without me or within, 

Shall show the purpose for which I have been.” 
The Pebble its vow could not forget, 

And it lies there wrapped in silence yet. 


1. Study the poem and read as a whole. 

2. Paraphrase it. 

3. What is a fable? 

4. The Pebble and the Acorn are personified. What 
is personification? 

5. Personify the geranium and the oak tree and 
write a conversation between them. 

Note to Teacher: 

Also study this poem for the application of work on ad¬ 
jectives, participles and infinitives. 


CHAPTER VI. 


PHRASES — CLAUSES. 

PHRASES. 

1. He walks rapidly. 

2. He walks with rapidity . 

3. A wise man spoke. 

4. A man of wisdom spoke. 

5. We enjoy rowing . 

6. We enjoy rowing on the river . 

7. To love is natural. 

8. To love the good ennobles. 

What expression in 2 does the same work as the 
adverb rapidly , in 1 ? What expression in 4 does the 
same work as the adjective wise , in 3 ? What expres¬ 
sions in 6 and 8 do the same work as the verbal 
nouns rowing and to love , in 5 and 7 ? 

An expression consisting of a group of words 
without subject and predicate, and used as a single 
part of speech, is called a phrase. 

A Phrase is a group of words, not containing 
subject and predicate, and doing the work of a noun, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 



160 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


A phrase which does the work of a noun is called 
a substantive phrase. 

A substantive phrase may be used : 

1. As the subject of a verb ; as, 

To overcome a difficulty strengthens us. 
Writing a good letter secured him the place. 

2. As the object of a verb ; as, 

He desires to improve'the time . 

He confesses having taken the money . 

3. As the complement of a verb ; as, 

The greatest victory is conquering self . 

My purpose is to finish the work . 

4. As the object of a preposition ; as, 

We were about to start homeward . 

You can succeed by making an effort . 

A phrase which does the work of an adjective 
is an adjective phrase; as, 

A desire to help others is noble. 

The flowers of spring have returned. 

I have a knife with a broken handle, 

A ship riding the waves is a beautiful sight. 
Then appeared the Czar, guarded by soldiers. 


PHRASES. 


161 


A phrase which does the work of an adverb is 
an adverbial phrase; as, 

We drove over the bridge. 

The birds return in the spring. 

Crowds came to witness the sight. 

Phrases are distinguished with regard to form 
as prepositional , participial, and infinitive. 

A prepositional phrase is one introduced by a 
preposition ; a participial phrase is one introduced 
by a participle ; an infinitive phrase is one introduced 
by to followed by a verb. 

Note.—A verb with its auxiliaries is often called a verb- 
phrase. [See page 112.] 


CLAUSES. 

A man who is wise is respected. 

All believe that the man is honest. 

The birds leave when summer is gone. 

Does the expression who is wise describe man f 
It does the work, then, of what part of speech ? Is 
the expression that the man is honest the object of the 
verb believe? It is used, then, as what part of speech? 
Does the expression when summer is gone modify the 
meaning of the verb leave ? It is used, then, as 
what part of speech ? 


162 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


A group of words containing subject and predi¬ 
cate, and used as a single part of speech, is called 
a clause. 

A Clause is a group of words, containing subject 
and predicate, and doing the work of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

A clause which does the work of a noun is called 
a substantive clause. 

A substantive clause may be used : 

1. As the subject of a verb ; as, 

Why he is going is not known. 

What he says makes no difference. 

That work is beneficial needs no proof. 

Whoever finishes first may be excused. 

2. As the object of a verb ; as, 

Tell us how you did it. 

We will do whatever you wish. 

Columbus believed that the earth is round. 

3. As the complement of a verb ; as, 

Life is what you make it. 

The question was who would go. 

Pilate’s words were, “ What is truth?” 


CLAUSES. 


1G3 


4. As the object of a preposition; as, 

You are judged by what you do. 

We must move from where we are. 

Persevere in whatever you undertake. 

A clause which does the work of an adjective is 
an adjective clause ; as, 

A pupil who studies will learn. 

I have a book which you should read. 

Youth is the time when habits are formed. 

Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

The place where the hero fell is marked by a stone. 

A clause which does the work of an adverb is 
an adverbial clause; as, 

He died where he fell. 

He acted as a man should act. 

Make hay while the sun shines. 

He went home because he was ill. 

If you persevere , you will succeed. 

The work is harder than he can do. 

Note.—A substantive clause may be introduced by a sub¬ 
ordinate conjunction, a relative pronoun, or a conjunctive adverb ; 
an adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun or an 
adverb used relatively ; an adverbial clause may be introduced by a 
subordinate conjunction or a conjunctive adverb. 


164 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Two expressions which have the same meaning 
are equivalent; as, 

a wealthy man = a man of wealth = a man who 
is wealthy. 

Sometimes a word may be changed : 

1. To an equivalent phrase ; as, 

a Boston man = a man from Boston 
works earnestly = works with earnestness 
a hot-house flower = a flower grown in a hot-house 

2. To an equivalent clause ; as, 

a man who lives in Boston 
works as if he were in earnest 
a flower which grew in a hot-house 


Sometimes a phrase may be changed : 

1. To an equivalent word ; as, 

came behind time = came late 

breezes from the ocean = ocean breezes 

answered without delay = answered promptly 

2. To an equivalent clause ; as, 

a man without a home = a man who has no home 
news to tell you = news which I wish to tell you 
wire made of brass = wire which is made of brass 


EXERCISE. 


165 


Sometimes a clause may be changed : 

1. To an equivalent word; as, 

a candidate who was defeated = a defeated candidate 
a box that was made by the Japanese = a Japanese box 
delays which can not be avoided = unavoidable delays 

2. To an equivalent phrase; as, 

the man who lives there = the man living there 
came that we might see you = came to see you 
the house which is on the hill = the house on the hill 

EXERCISE. 

I.—Name the phrases in the following sentences; 
tell which are substantive, which adjective, and which 
adverbial; also tell of what form each is : 

1. He is working for the prize. 

2. Revenge dwells in little minds. 

3. Crowds came to view the ruins. 

4. My desire is to see Niagara Falls. 

5. To become a scholar requires study. 

6. Is this a time to be cloudy and sad? 

7. The moon shines with borrowed light. 

8. The view from the hilltop is beautiful. 

9. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

10. In ancient times, France was called Gaul. 

11. Returning good for evil is a Christian trait. 


166 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


12. A basket bolding apples stood on the table. 

13. They are building a home for the friendless. 

14. I could not avoid expressing my disapproval. 

15. The philanthropist wishes to relieve suffering. 

16. Her favorite pastime was playing on the violin. 

17. He wrecked the train by leaving the switch open. 

18. The ship, abandoned by its crew, lay tossing wildly. 

II.—Name the clauses, and tell which are sub¬ 
stantive, which adjective, which adverbial: 

1. I will come when you call. 

2. While life lasts, there is hope. 

3. He laughs best who laughs last. 

4. What is done cannot be undone. 

5. He did what was requested of him. 

6. Sweet is the hour when daylight dies. 

7. I will have finished before you return. 

8. If you want friends, you must be friendly. 

9. They sleep the sleep that knows no waking. 

10. Much depends upon who undertakes the work. 

11. The pupil explained why the divisor is inverted. 

12. I judge from what he reads that he is a scholar. 

13. The place where the pilgrims landed is Plymouth. 

14. I have not heard from Fannie since she went away. 

15. The fact is that we make much of our own trouble. 

16. Nerves are white cords which run through all parts 
of the body. 

17. Some animals which are now extinct were larger 
than elephants [are]. 


EXERCISE. 


167 


III. — Change the italicized words to equivalent 
phrases : 


flew skyward 
was seen there 
cultured people 
wrote carelessly 
the ocean’s roar 
beardless youths 
a public highway 
an influential man 


a golden chain 
finished it easily 
southerly breezes 
hand-made shoes 
an orphan asylum 
was extremely cruel 
a temperance lecture 
the Saint Louis mail 


IV.—Change the italicized phrases to equivalent 
words : 


suits for boys 
fish without eyes 
a man of courage 
cars for passengers 
found in this place 
stories about fairies 
a cottage by the sea 
a spoon made of wood 


a work of value 
went toward home 
speaks with fluency 
treats all with respect 
diamonds from Brazil 
a hat belonging to Tom 
the house of Mr. Smith 
ran without taking heed 


V.—Change the italicized words and phrases to 
equivalent clauses : 

1. An aimless life is useless. 

2. I came down to attend the lecture. 

3. People of intelligence like to read. 

4. A man without friends is to be pitied. 


168 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


5. We started on onr journey before sunrise. 

6. A New York merchant bought the picture. 

7. The burning building makes a bright light. 

8. Please hand me the book with the blue cover. 

9. Having finished his address , he took his seat. 

10. The man killed by the train was a switchman. 

11. People living in the flooded districts had to leave. 

VI. — Change the italicized clauses to equivalent 
words or phrases : 

1. He looks as if he were happy. 

2. I desire that I may please you. 

3. It is a building that will not burn. 

4. He bore the pain as a hero would. 

5. A stone that rolls gathers no moss. 

6. She has a doll which has flaxen hair. 

7. I found a nest which had nothing in it. 

8. They did not return until the sun had set. 

9. Oranges which grow in Florida are the best. 

10. That is a boat which has a wheel on the side. 

11. I received a note which was written in German. 

VII. —Write three sentences, each containing a 
substantive phrase ; three, each containing an adjec¬ 
tive phrase ; three, each containing an adverbial 
phrase. 

VIII. —Write three sentences, each containing a 
substantive clause ; three, each containing an adjec¬ 
tive clause ; three, each containing an adverbial 
clause. 


THE SPIDER AND THE FLY. 


169 


BY MARY HOWITT. 

I. 

“Will you walk into my parlor?” said the Spider to the Fly; 

“ ’Tis the prettiest little parlor that ever you did spy. 

The way into my parlor is up a winding stair, 

And I have many curious things to show when you are there.” 
“Oh no, no,” said the little Fly; “to ask me is in vain, 

For who goes up your winding stair can ne’er come down again.” 

II. 

“I’m sure you must be weary, dear, with soaring up so high; 

Will you rest upon my little bed?” said the Spider to the Fly. 
“There are pretty curtains drawn around; the sheets are fine and 
thin, 

And if you like to rest awhile, I’ll snugly tuck you in!” 

“Oh no, no,” said the little Fly, “for I’ve often heard it said, 
They never, never wake again who sleep upon your bed!” 

III. 

Said the cunning Spider to the Fly: “Dear friend, what can I do 
To prove the warm affection I’ve always felt for you? 

I have within my pantry good store of all that’s nice; 

I’m sure you’re very welcome—will you please take a slice?” 

“Oh no, no,” said the little Fly; “kind sir, that cannot be: 

I’ve heard what’s in your pantry, and I do not wish to see!” 

IV. 

“Sweet creature!” said the Spider, “you’re witty and you’re wise; 
How handsome are your gauzy wings! how brilliant are your 
eyes! 

I have a little looking-glass upon my parlor shelf; 

If you’ll step in one moment, dear, you shall behold yourself.” 

“I thank you, gentle sir,” she said, “for what you’re pleased to 
say, 

And, bidding you good morning now ? I’ll call another day,” 


170 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


V. 

The Spider turned him round about, and went into his den, 

For well he knew the silly Fly would soon come back again: 

So he wove a subtle web in a little corner sly, 

And set his table ready to dine upon the Fly; 

Then came out to his door again, and merrily did sing: 

“Come hither, hither, pretty Fly, with the pearl and silver wing; 
Your robes are green and purple; there’s a crest upon your head; 
Your eyes are like the diamond bright, but mine are dull as 


Alas, alas! how very soon this silly little Fly, 

Hearing his wily, flattering words, came slowly flitting by; 

With buzzing wings she hung aloft, then near and nearer drew, 
Thinking only of her brilliant eyes and green and purple hue, 
Thinking only of her crested head. Poor, foolish thing! at last 
Up jumped the cunning Spider, and fiercely held her fast. 

VII. 

He dragged her up this winding stair, into his dismal den, 

Within his little parlor—but she ne’er came out again! 

And now, dear little children, who may this story read, 

To idle, silly, flattering words, I pray you, ne’er give heed; 

Unto an evil counselor close heart and ear and eye, 

And take a lesson from this tale of the Spider and the Fly. 

THE SPIDER AND THE FLY. 

1. Select the clauses. 

Give the use of the various clauses. 

2. Note throughout the poem the nominative case 
by address. Compare the adjectives. Note their attrib¬ 
utive use. Select the various adverbs and state uses. 

3. - Select the eight parts of speech. 

Select the different noun uses. 

Select the participles and infinitives. 

State the word each participle describes, 


THE BRAVE SOLDIER* 


171 


ANECDOTE. 

The Brave Soldier. 

When the French were storming Batisbon, the great 
general, Napoleon, stood at a distance watching the 
movement of the troops. 

Soon he saw riding rapidly toward him a young sol¬ 
dier. When he had reached the emperor, the youth dis¬ 
mounted. 

“Sire,” he cried, “your soldiers have won! We have 
taken Ratisbon for you! The eagle is on the walls,—and 
I placed it there!” 

The eyes of the general flashed and hope sprang 
high in his soul. He dreamed of future victories and 
of the success of his armies. But soon he thought of 
the lad who had brought the glorious news and his look 
softened. He turned to the brave, young soldier who 
had been clinging to his horse and was faint with an 
awful wound in his breast. 

In pity the great emperor said: “Why, my lad, you 
are wounded!” “Nay, sire,” proudly replied the gallant 
youth, “I am killed!” and fell dead at the feet of his 
general. 

Robert Browning, the great English poet, has written 
a beautiful poem about this valiant deed and called it 
“An Incident of the French Camp.” 


A wise man went to see a king and said he knew the 
secret of happiness. For a large sum he told the secret. 
It is: “Do a kindness to some one every day.” The 
king tried to follow the advice, and was soon a happy 
and contented man. 



172 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


PICTURE LESSON. 

“ Can’t You Talk ? ” 

I. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Look at the picture carefully and be ready to answer 
the following questions:—What is the name of this pic¬ 
ture? Why so named? Can you think of a better 
name? Where is the child? What is he doing? Is 
he talking, or does he look as if he would like to speak 
to the dog? How old do you think this baby is? Can 
he walk? Do children talk before they are able to 
walk? How is the baby dressed? How did it come 
here on the stone steps? Is it summer or winter? Is 
it morning or evening? Does the child seem to be 
afraid of the dog? What kind of a dog is this? What 
dogs are noted for their kindness and devotion to their 
charges? Are dogs always kind to very little children? 
Why are they so often selected as pets for children? 
Are they apt to be friendly with cats ? Where is the 
cat? Why does it not follow the child out of doors? 
Does the picture tell or suggest a story? If so, tell it. 

II. 

WRITTEN EXERCISES. 

Write the story you read in this picture. Tell what 
happened when the baby awoke that morning. Also how 
he got out of doors and enjoyed his visit to the dog. 
Tell what the child, the dog and the cat said, or would 
have said if they could. Remember the quotation 
marks. What do you think the mother said when she 
found her baby? 



( 173 ) 


CAN’T YOU TALK 















PICTURE LESSON. 


175 


III. 

CORRECTED WORE 

Look your paper over carefully. Does every sen¬ 
tence begin with a capital letter? How is each sentence 
ended? Have you used quotation marks with borrowed 
words or sentences ? 

Read your story silently. Have you described the 
picture or told a story ? Does the word and occur more 
than once in any sentence? How can you improve 
the long sentences? How can you shorten them? 
Rewrite and try to shorten them. 

Read the story aloud. Can you give the thought in 
each long sentence in other words ? Which is the better 
way? Why? 


AMONG THE NOBLEST. 

“Yes, well your story pleads the cause 
Of those dumb mouths that have no speech, 
Only a cry from each to each 
In its own kind, with its own laws; 
Something that is beyond the reach 
Of human power to learn or teach.” 

Thus spake the poet, with a sigh; 

Then added, with impassioned cry, 

As one who feels the w T ords he speaks, 

The color flushing in his cheeks, 

The fervor burning in his eye; 

“Among the noblest in the land, 

Though he may count himself the least, 
That man I honor and revere 
Who, without favor, without fear, 

In the great city dares to stand 
The friend of every friendless beast.” 



CHAPTER, VII. 


THE SENTENCE — ELEMENTS. 

Good pupils | are always studious. 

Many birds | build very ingenious nests. 

Smoke from the factories | rises over the city. 

The waves which now ripple | roll high when it 
storms. 

What two parts has every sentence ? [ See page 

12.] Read, in each sentence above, only the words 
necessary to make a complete thought. What, then, 
is the principal word in each subject ? What is the 
principal word, or words, in each predicate ? What 
words, phrases, or clauses are used as modifiers ? 

The parts of which a sentence is composed are 
its elements. 

The entire subject of a sentence is the logical 
subject; the entire predicate is the logical predicate. 

The principal word in the logical subject is the 
grammatical subject; the principal word, or words, 
in the logical predicate is the grammatical predicate. 



ELEMENTS OP SENTENCES. 


177 


The grammatical subject and the grammatical 
predicate of a sentence are its principal elements. 

The parts of a sentence which modify the prin¬ 
cipal elements are its subordinate elements. 

The grammatical subject may be a word, a 
phrase, or a clause ; as, 

Man is mortal. To do right is a duty. 

They went away. Studying hard benefits us. 

The good are great. That she came is certain. 

The grammatical predicate is the verb ( or verb 
phrase), alone, or with its complement or object; as, 

Time Jlies. Riches take wings. 

You must study. Fruit is wholesome. 

He should have gone. Fixed stars are suns. 

The noun complement of a copulative verb may 
be a word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, 

That is John. Her desire was to go soon. 

He was made leader. My idea is that he has gone. 

The object of a verb may be a word, a phrase, 
or a clause ; as, 

Miners dig ore. I finished reading the hook. 

We shall see her. I feared that he would fail. 


178 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Note. — The subject and the object of a verb, the noun com¬ 
plement of a copulative verb, and the object of a preposition, a 
participle, or an infinitive, are always substantive elements, or 
noun-terms. 

The grammatical subject may be modified by a 
word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, 

Ten men were sent. 

Kind words are remembered. 

A desire to help others is noble. 

The way of the transgressor is hard. 

The man steering the boat is the pilot. 

The officer who ivas killed was brave. 

The object of a verb, the noun complement, or 
any noun in the sentence, may be modified in the 
same manner as the subject. 

Note. —Words, phrases, and clauses used to modify nouns 
are adjective elements, or adjective-terms. 

The verb may be modified by a word, a phrase, 
or a clause ; as, 

He is often late. He is working to win the prize. 

She sings sweetly. I will tell her when I see her. 

We went up the hill. After frost comes , the nuts fall. 
They live in the city. We shouted till the woods rang. 

Note.— Words, phrases, and clauses used to modify verbs, 
adjectives, or adverbs, are adverbial elements, or adverb-terms. 


ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 


179 


An element that is not modified is called a 
simple element; as, 

Good men are respected. 

Days of childhood are bright. 

Men who are good are respected. 

An element that is modified by another element 
is called a complex element; as, 

Remarkably pleasant weather favored us. 

Children enjoy building houses with blocks. 

We spent the day in a quiet grove near the city. 

It is easy to find reasons why she should stay. 

Those who come in summer , when everything is 
green , like the place. 

As we have seen [page 33], two or more ele¬ 
ments used in the same relation in the sentence may 
be joined by a conjunction, thus forming a compound 
element; as, 

Tides ebb and flow. 

I prefer roses , violets , or lilies-of-the-v alley. 

This worthy but unfortunate man needs aid. 

They went dozen the valley and up the hill. 

Will you not tell me where you are going and 
when you will return ? 


180 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Names of persons and things addressed, exclam¬ 
atory words and phrases, and words and phrases 
merely introductory, since they are not grammatically 
related to other parts of the sentences in which they 
they are used, are independent elements ; as, 

John , have you a knife ? 

Well , what are you going to do ? 

I think, my friend , you are wrong. 

Alas ! Poor child , he is left alone. 

By the way , I saw your friend to-day. 

The natural order of the elements is : 

1. — Subject, preceded by word modifiers and 
followed by phrase and clause modifiers. 2. —Predi¬ 
cate—the verb followed by its modifiers, complement, 
or object. Elements, however, are often changed 
from their natural order ; as, 

Down it came. 

What is the news ? 

A mighty king was he. 

There comes my friend. 

Blessed are the pure in heart. 

How unsearchable are Thy ways ! 

It is sad to be forgotten. 

Note. —The real subject of the last sentence above is to be 
forgotten. It is merely introductory. 


ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 


181 


Modifiers must be so placed as to show exactly 
what they are intended to modify. They should 
generally be placed as near as possible to the words 
with which they are connected. Thus : 

A basket of fresh eggs [not & fresh basket]. 

I have only five minutes to wait [not only have]. 

I see dearly how it happened [ not how it 
happened dearly. ] 

He reads with interest the book you gave him 
[ not the book you gave him with interest ]. 

The man who is diligent is most likely to succeed 
[not is most likely to succeed who is diligent ]. 


SUMMARY. 

Elements are classified with reference to : 


{ Principal. 
Subordinate. 
Independent. 


2 . 


Structure. 



word. 

phrase. 

clause. 


f Simple. 

Complex. 

[ Compound. 


3. 


Use. < 


Noun-terms. 

Ad j ective-ter ms. 

Verb-terms. 

Adverb-terms. 



182 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 

I. — Analyze each of the following sentences by 

doing the work indicated : ( 1 ).— Name the logical 

subject and the logical predicate. (2).— Name the 
principal elements. (3). — Name the subordinate 
elements, and tell what each modifies. (4). — Tell 
whether each element is a word, a phrase, or a clause, 
and what work it does in the sentence : 

1. I think that he will come. 

2. The little bee works busily. 

3. She dislikes to ask a favor. 

4. God created heaven and earth. 

5. That news is toq good to be true. 

6. No one can tell what influence is. 

7. He was a sadder but a wiser man. 

8. The probability is that it will rain. 

9. A small leak may sink a great ship. 

10. That the earth moves was once denied. 

II. Those who sow in youth reap in old age. 

12. A desire to improve is to be commended. 

13. The person who does no good, does harm. 

14. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

15. Making money absorbs the time of many men. 

16. The gentlemanly boy answered very courteously. 

17. Vicious people generally corrupt their associates. 

18. What we do, not what we think, makes saints of us. 

19. Sponges are the skeletons of small marine animals. 


EXERCISE. 


183 


20. The drowsy cattle lie under the oaks by the brook. 

21. To help the poor is a duty which none should shirk. 

22. Thought and language act and react on each other. 

23. The moonlight, falling on the river, make a beautiful 
silvery track. 

24. The stories that we read should instruct us while 
they amuse us. 

25. Sparkling water from a cool spring refreshed the 
thirsty travelers when they stopped to rest. 

II. — Change each of these sentences to the 
natural order, and analyze as in I : 

1. Away flew the bird. 

2. What man dares, I dare. 

3. A lovelier scene I never saw. 

4. How mournfully coos the dove ! 

5. Can success come without effort? 

6. It is thought that he was killed. 

7. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

8. What a beautiful flower the rose is! 

9. It is your duty to obey your parents. 

10. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

11. What shall be the reward of the faithful? 

12. Having lost his position, he returned home. 

13. Where the heart is there will the treasure be. 

14. He is a good man, whom fortune makes better. 

15. Gone are the birds that were our summer guests. 

16. The rose’s glowing breast the honey-bee now seeks. 

17. Across the unknown sea steered the brave Genoese. 


184 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


III. — Name the independent elements in the 
following sentences : 

1. Father, who makes it snow? 

2. There is no place like home. 

3. Now, Barrabas was a robber. 

4. To be honest, I do not like him. 

5. I do not know, sir, where he has gone. 

6. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. 

7. Ah, then there was mounting in hot haste. 

8. Alas ! Poor Yorick ! I knew him, Horatio. 

9. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 

10. Sweet Auburn ! Loveliest village of the plain. 

IV. — Improve each of the following sentences 
by changing the position of the part italicized : 

1. All books are not instructive. 

2. The woman only has one child. 

3. I meant to never do that again. 

4. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see. 

5. The boat only goes down in the morning. 

6. She received a beautiful pair of ear-rings. 

7. In the riot, many were injured on both sides, 

8. He almost seemed as if he were ready to cry. 

9. I should like to have you visit me very much. 

10. He took a book from the library that he wanted. 

11. We came very near being killed more than once. 

12. Ants are very industrious insects as well as bees. 

13. Handsome men’s dressing rooms will be fitted up. 


EXERCISE. 


185 


14. The birds have almost all gone, which cheered us 
in summer. 

15. The weary traveler sank down to rest, overcome 
with fatigue. 

16. It has been reported that she was to be married 
several times. 

17. I have read the book which you sent me with 
much pleasure. 

18. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, climbing to 
the top of a hill. 

19. The boat was thought to be lost, which carried 
the excursionists. 

20. The Laplander defies the severity of his climate, 
wrapped in his deerskins. 

21. We have a school-house large enough to accomo¬ 
date five hundred pupils, three stories high. 

V. — Write three sentences, using words as 
principal elements ; three, using phrases (1) as 
subject, (2) as complement, (3) as object of a verb ; 
three, using clauses (1 ) as subject, (2) as comple¬ 
ment, (3 ) as object of a verb. 

VI. — Write three sentences, using words to 
modify the principal elements ; write four sentences, 
using phrases to modify (1) the subject, (2) the 
verb, (3) the complement, (4) the object of a verb ; 
four, using clauses to modify ( 1) the subject, ( 2 ) the 
verb, (3) the complement, (4) the object of a verb. 


186 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


THE BAREFOOT BOY. 

Blessings on thee, little man, 

Barefoot boy, with cheeks of tan! 

With thy turned up pantaloons, 

And thy merry whistled tunes: 

With thy red lips, redder still 
Kissed by strawberries on the hill; 
With the sunshine on thy face, 
Through thy torn brim’s jaunty grace: 
From my heart I give thee joy,— 

I was once a barefoot boy! 

Oh, for boyhood’s painless play, 

Sleep that wakes in laughing day, 
Health that mocks the doctor’s rules, 
Knowledge never learned of schools, 

Of the wild bee’s morning chase, 

Of the wild-flower’s time and place. 
How the tortoise bears his shell, 

How the wood-chuck digs his cell, 

And the ground-mole sinks his well. 
How the oriole’s nest is hung, 

How the robin feeds her young, 

Where the whitest lilies blow, 

Where the freshest berries grow, 
Where the ground-nut trails its vine, 
Where the wood-grape’s clusters shine. 
Of the black wasp’s cunning way, 
Mason of his walls of clay. 

Cheerily, then, my little man, 

Live and laugh, as boyhood can, 
Though the flinty slopes be hard, 
Stubble-speared the new-mown sward, 
Every morn shall lead thee through 
Fresh baptisms of the dew; 

Every evening from thy feet 
Shall the cool wind kiss the heat; 

All too soon these feet must hide 
In the prison cells of pride, 



IM iMB 


THE “ BAREFOOT BOY.” 


( 187 ) 




























- 
















































. 





















THE BAREFOOT BOY. 


189 


Lose the freedom of the sod, 

Like a colt’s for work be shod, 

Made to tread the mills of toil, 

Up and down in ceaseless moil. 
Happy if their track be found 
Never on forbidden ground; 

Happy if they sink not in 
Quick and treacherous sands of sin. 
Ah! that thou couldst know the joy, 
Ere it passes, barefoot boy! 


Suggestions for Composition Work. 

Describe the barefoot boy,”—his clothing, his face. 
What did Whittier know about barefoot boys? Tell 
five things the boy knew. How had he learned them? 
Where do the freshest berries grow? What will happen 
to him “all too soon?” What are the “prison cells of 
pride?” What is Whittier’s wish for the boy? What 
does the use of “thee,” “thy,” indicate? Select the four 
lines (or more) you like the best in the poem. 



CHAPTER. VIII. 


THE SENTENCE: SIMPLE —COMPLEX —COMPOUND. 

The studious boy improves. 

The boy who studies improves. 

The boy studies and he improves. 

Which of these sentences has but one subject 
and one predicate ? Which sentence contains a prin¬ 
cipal and a subordinate assertion? Name the subject 
and the predicate of each. Which sentence contains 
two assertions of equal rank ? Name the subject and 
the predicate of each. 

A sentence which contains but one subject and 
one predicate is a simple sentence. 

A sentence which contains a principal assertion 
and one or more subordinate assertions, or clauses, 
is a complex sentence. 

A sentence which contains two or more asser¬ 
tions of equal rank is a compound sentence. 

Only words and phrases can enter as elements 
into simple sentences. 



EXERCISE. 


191 


The clause which makes a sentence complex, as 
we have seen, does the work of a noun, an adjec¬ 
tive, or an adverb. 

The sentences joined by co-ordinate conjunctions 
to form a compound sentence are called members; as, 

Buy the truth and sell it not. 

Virtue elevates the mind , but vice debases it. 

Govern your passions or they will govern you. 

Time is short , hence it should be improved. 

The connective may be omitted between the 
members ; as, 

United we stand, divided we fall. 

Cease to do evil; learn to do well. 

His dark eye flashed, his proud breast heaved, 
his cheek’s blood went and came. 

Words that can be easily supplied are often 
omitted from clauses or members ; as, 

You are taller than I [am]. 

He is poor but [ he is ] honest. 

I did not know [that] you were here. 

While [he was] walking, he met a friend. 

Some went on the train, some [went] by water. 

Note. — Treat the members of compound sentences as separate 
sentences. 


192 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


EXERCISE. 


I. — Tell what kind of sentence each of the fol¬ 
lowing is, and analyze it as in exercise I, page 149 : 

1. Wisdom is better than rubies. 

2. He studies what he likes best. 

3. Woes cluster; they love a train. 

4. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

5. Politeness goes far, yet costs little. 

6. Where Homer was born is unknown. 

7. A small unkindness is a great offence. 

8. The sleep of the laboring man is sweet. 

9. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 

10. The belief is that all the planets revolve. 

II. We learned that the moon causes the tides. 

12. Keep your shop and your shop will keep you. 

13. It is a rule of manners to avoid exaggeration. 

14. Sweet flowers are slow, but weeds make haste. 

15. To deliberate with your conscience is not wise. 

16. He leadeth my soul where the still waters flow. 

17. He is the free man whom the truth makes free. 

18. The merchant who acts honorably obtains credit. 

19. The king must win, or he must forfeit his crown. 

20. Most politicians advocate whatever seems popular. 

21. The soldiers, following their leader, pressed onward. 

22. The bride kissed the goblet, the knight took it up. 

23. Gaining victory from defeat is the test of strength. 

24. Every fact that is learned becomes a key to other 
facts. 


EXERCISE. 


i93 


$5. They have nothing to do; therefore they are un¬ 
happy. 

26. Straws swim on the surface; pearls lie at the 
bottom. 

27. Though a liar speak the truth, he will not be 
believed. 

28. The ornaments of a home are the friends that fre¬ 
quent it. 

29. Language was given us that we might express our 
thoughts. 

30. The greatest men very frequently have striking 
peculiarities. 

31. The proper business of friendship is to inspire life 
and courage. 

32. We obey the laws of society, because they are the 
laws of virtue. 

33. A successful man controls circumstances, and is 
not controlled by them. 

34. A little mind attends to several things at once, 
but a great mind gives itself solely to one thing at a time. 

35. “I can ” climbs to the mountain top, 

Or plows the billowy main; 

He lifts the hammer in the shop, 

And drives the saw and plane. 

II.—Write five simple sentences; five complex 
sentences ; five compound sentences. 


194 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


By the River. 

1. Study the picture carefully. 

2. Compare the foliage in this picture with that in 
Corot’s Dance of the Nymphs. 

3. What does this comparison suggest as to the 
season of the year in each picture ? 

4. Do you like the picture more because of the fig¬ 
ures in the foreground? 

5. Imagine yourself walking upon the river-path, 
and write a paper describing the scenes and incidents 
of your walk. 

THE RAVEN. 

BY EDGAR ALLAN POE. 

I. 

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and 
weary, 

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,— 

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, 
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. 

“ ’Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door— 
Only this, and nothing more.” 

II. 

Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December, 

And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. 
Eagerly I wished the morrow: vainly I had sought to borrow 
From my books surcease of sorrow—sorrow for the lost Lenore— 
For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore— 
Nameless here for evermore. 

III. 

And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain 
Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before; 

So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating, 

“ ’Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door,— 
Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door; 

That it is, and nothing more.” 




BY THE RIVER 

( 195 ) 


















" 

d ■ 










































THE RAVEN. 


197 


IV. 

Presently my soul grew stronger; hesitating then no longer, 

“Sir,” said I, “or madam, truly your forgiveness I implore; 

But the fact is, I was napping, and so gently you came rapping, 
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door, 
That I scarce was sure I heard you”—here I opened wide the door: 
Darkness there, and nothing more. 

The Kaven. 

1. These four stanzas from the poem, The Raven, by 
Edgar Allan Poe, are to be used for the study of the 
participle. 

(a) The participle with an adverb modifier; 

(b) With an adverbial phrase modifier; 

(c) With an object. 

2. The participle— 

1. Modifying the subject; 

2. As object of a preposition; 

3. As predicate complement; 

4. As an attribute of the subject. 

Note the pure adjective use of “dying” in II. 

3. Study this poem, too, for use of attributive, apposi- 
tive and qualifying adjectives. State the uses of 
nouns, phrases and clauses. 


Not at Home. 

Lessing knocked at his door when he came home 
one evening. His servant, who was in the house, looked 
out of the window; but, as it was dark, he did not recog¬ 
nize him, and said: “The professor is not at home.” 
Lessing, who had his thoughts elsewhere, replied: “No 
matter, I will call again some other time,” and went 
away. 



198 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Letter Writing. 

ADDRESSING AN ENVELOPE—STUDY OF THE HEADING AND THE 
ADDRESS—VARIOUS LETTER FORMS. 

Before a letter is mailed, it must be neatly folded 
and placed in a suitable envelope. It is not considered 
good taste to crumple or soil a letter in folding it. The 
envelope should be sealed and then addressed. The 
stamp should be placed upon the upper right hand cor¬ 
ner. Following is a picture of an envelope correctly 
addressed for the letter on page 91: 


m/lA, Gy. 13 . GyUy&vbi/rV, 

(DOS 0 ] TKbcVTlAXHy Q/T>C'., 


Clx/WlOXpO-, 


When the person to whom the letter is sent lives in 
a small town or village, or receives mail at a country 
post-office, the street address is not given. Instead, 
give the name of the county after the post-office address. 






LETTER WRITING. 


109 


Draw four rectangles, the length being a little more 
than twice the width. Let these represent four envel¬ 
opes. Write upon them the correct addresses for the 
letters on pages 91 and 93, being careful to write the 
address in the proper place. 

THE HEADING. 

The Heading consists of the time when and the 
place where the letter was written. Study carefully the 
arrangement, capitals and punctuation of the headings 
on page 88. 

For convenience in writing dates, the names of cer¬ 
tain months are usually abbreviated. Thus we write 
Jan. for January, Sept, for September. May, June 
and July should not be abbreviated. 

Write and punctuate twelve dates, each containing a 
different month. 

In order that the reply to a letter may the more cer¬ 
tainly reach the writer, the place from which the letter 
is sent should be stated as definitely as possible. Thus, 
it is not sufficient to say State St., Chicago, III., for the 
reason that State Street is several miles long and a post¬ 
man cannot well hunt the whole length of it. The 
number of the house should be given. 

If temporarily residing in a place, or the street 
number is not known, it is well to have your letters 
sent in care of some well-known firm or institution, of a 
hotel, or of some post-office box. Thus:— 


200 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


7TW TlLaA/bp jCL. c)Lx^cU/, 

Clvu^cw^cv TloA/m/aX j3c$\ax>L, 


CAUTIONS. 

Do not omit the name of the state from the heading. 

Do not write d, th, or st after the number showing 
the day of the month. 

Do not abbreviate the name of a city, county, in¬ 
stitution or hotel. 

THE ADDRESS. 

The address consists of the name of the person or 
firm to whom the letter is written; the title, if any; and 
the residence or place of business. You should exercise 
the same care in writing the address that was used in 
writing the heading. [Review the hints given.] Busi¬ 
ness men complain that many persons are so careless in 
their correspondence as to cause much trouble and 
annoyance. 





LETTER WRITING. 


201 


TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS BEFORE NAMES OF PERSONS! 


Mr., Messrs., Rev., Hon., 

Mrs., The Mrs., Very Rev., Col., 

Miss, Misses, Dr., Gen., 

Master, Masters, Prof., Capt., 

Madame, Mesdames, Judge, Gov. 


The Miss Smiths; The Masters Arnold. 


TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS USED AFTER NAMES! 

Esq., A. B., M. D., Ph.D., D. D., 

Jr., A.M., D.D.S., Ph.M., LL.D., 

Mgr, S.J, D.O, M.S, LL.M. 


Note 1.—The teacher should explain the meaning and use of these 
titles and abbreviations. 

Note 2.—A lady, in writing to a stranger, should always prefix 
Mrs. or Miss in signing her name, so that the person 
receiving the letter may know how to address the 
reply. Thus,— 

UAAs AM/l/bp 

(THAz^.) C. l^x>uynx^. 




ADDRESSES. 

1. Write the address for a letteT to a physician. 

2. Write the address for a letter to the Superin¬ 
tendent of your schools. 

3. Write the address for a letter to three married 
ladies of the same name; of different names. 

4. Write the address for a letter to a member of 
Congress. 

5. Write the address for a letter to a graduate from 
a dental college. 


202 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


THE BODY OF A LETTER. 

The body of a letter should convey the thought of 
the writer clearly. The style of a letter is determined 
by its character. 

A business letter should be concise, definite, accurate 
and courteous. It should be written on one side of the 
paper only; names of articles or figures should be plainly 
written, and the writer should keep a copy of the letter. 

A friendly letter should be written in an easy con¬ 
versational style, avoiding slang, vulgarity and gossip. 

All letters should be respectful—but especially those 
to superiors and inferiors. They should be carefully 
written. A slovenly written letter, or one upon soiled 
paper, or one carelessly folded, is discreditable to the 
writer and discourteous to the recipient. Errors in 
arrangement, spelling, capitals and punctuation; loose¬ 
ness of expression, and the omission of important de¬ 
tails all mark the writer as careless, if not illiterate. 

The body of a letter may begin on the same line 
with and immediately following the salutation; but it 
usually begins on the - first line below it. It is custom¬ 
ary to leave a margin of a quarter or a half-inch on the 
left of each page. If a letter is of some length, it is 
usually begun about an inch or an inch and a half from 
the top of the page; but if the body consists of only a 
few lines, the letter is begun nearer the center of the 
page, so as to leave the top and bottom margins about 
the same. 


OTHER BUSINESS AND SOCIAL FORMS. 


203 


Other Business and Social Forms. 

TELEGRAMS. 

Sending telegrams and cablegrams is expensive, as 
telegraph companies usually charge so much per word, 
or so much for ten words and so much for each addi¬ 
tional word. It is important, therefore, .to make each 
message as brief as clearness will permit. 

Copy the following telegram: 

Cairo, Ills., June 5, 1900. 

Mrs. Jno. L. Stevens, 

236 Dearborn Ave., 

Chicago, Ills. 

Train wrecked. Am uninjured. Will reach home 
to-morrow afternoon. 

Jno. L. Stevens. 

Condense the following telegrams into ten words or 
less: 

1. I have arrived at my destination safe. I will 
report conditions and prospects by mail. 

2. What credit do you instruct me to give Jones 
& Estes? Telegraph me your reply. 

3. Grandma is no better. She is growing worse 
daily. I think you had better come at once. 

Write five telegrams of ten words each. 

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. 

A letter of introduction is one in which a friend 
or an acquaintance is introduced to another friend or 
acquaintance. It is intended to be carried by the party 
introduced. It should not be sealed. It should have 
upon the lower left hand corner of the envelope the 
word “Introducing,” followed by the name of the person 
to be introduced. 


204 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Copy the following letter of introduction: 

Des Monies, Iowa, Feb. 3, 1898. 
Judge Thos. B. Reed, 

Madison, Wis. 

My dear Sir :— 

This will be handed you by my friend, 
Alexander Hobart, of this city. You will find him a 
bright business man and a genial gentleman. 

Any courtesies extended to him will be gratefully 
remembered by 

Yours very truly, 

William Mason. 

Write three letters introducing friends to other 
friends. 

LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION. 

The usual purpose of a letter of recommendation is 
to assist some one to secure employment. It should 
not be sealed. 

Copy the following recommendation: 

Dayton, O., June 20, 1900. 

To whom it may concern: 

We take pleasure in stating 
that the bearer, Floyd Jones, has been in our employ 
as book-keeper for eight years and that we have found 
him faithful, competent and honest. We commend him 
to the favorable consideration of any to whom this may 
be presented. 

Very truly, 

Thompson, Brown & Co. 

Write a letter of recommendation for Edward Mason, 
who has been a good boy and a bright scholar, and who 
is seeking to obtain a position as clerk in the store of 
Wallace & McCullough. Sign it as his teacher. 


FORMAL AND INFORMAL NOTES. 


205 


Mrs. A. R. Patrick is a housekeeper. Mary Stewart 
has been in her employ as a domestic for four years. 
Mrs. Patrick desires to recommend her to the public 
as competent, neat, careful and honest. Write the recom¬ 
mendation. 

FORMAL AND INFORMAL NOTES. 

In formal notes of invitation, acceptance, regret, 
congratulation, etc., the writer refers to himself by 
name instead of using a pronoun. Such notes should 
be written upon small note paper and, if possible, con¬ 
fined to the first page. If too long for this, they may 
be continued upon the third page. In such notes the 
address and conclusion are omitted. The place and date 
are written at the left, below the note. The place given 
is usually the street number or the local name of one’s 
residence; and the date includes the day of the week 
and the day of the month. When the letters R. S. V. P. 
are written upon an invitation, they signify that an 
answer is requested. 

Informal notes are simply plain, friendly notes, writ¬ 
ten in familiar language and using the first person. 

Copy the following formal notes: 

Mr. and Mrs. J. A. Hilliard request the pleasure 
of the company of Mr. and Mrs. Thos. R. Nelson at 
luncheon on Friday, April 10, at twelve noon. 

264 Maywood Ave., 

Wednesday, April eighth. 

Mr. and Mrs. Thos. R. Nelson accept with pleasure 
Mr. and Mrs J. A. Hilliard’s invitation for Friday 
noon. 

159 Arch St., 

Thursday, April ninth. 


206 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Mr. and Mrs. Thos. E. Nelson regret that, owing to 
a previous engagement, they are unable to accept Mr. 
and Mrs. J. A. Milliards kind invitation for Friday 
noon. 

159 Arch St.. 

Thursday, April ninth. 

Copy this informal note: 

4603 Monroe Ave. 

My dear Miss Knapp :— 

We are to have several of 
the young people out tomorrow evening to meet Miss 
Virginia Morris, of New York; and, incidentally, to 
take a boat ride upon the lake, followed by a luncheon 
and games. I should enjoy having you with us. 
Can't you come? We start for the lake at five o'clock 
sharp. 

Sincerely yours, 

June 10, 1900. Margaret Badger. 

GENERAL EXERCISE. 

1. Write a letter to Laird & Lee, 253 Wabash Ave., 
Chicago, Ills., ordering 1 copy ‘‘Lee’s Guide to Paris,” 
silk cloth, 50c.; 1 copy “Two Chums,” $1.00; 1 copy 
“The Heart of a Boy,” $1.25; 1 copy “Yellow Beauty,” 
new edition, 50c. Enclose money order for $3.25 and 
tell how you wish the books sent. 

2. Write an application for a position as clerk in 
one of the stores of your town. 

3. Write an application for a position as farm hand, 
employment to be by the month and for the entire year. 

4. Write a note to a friend inviting her to take tea 
with you the following Friday. 


GENERAL EXERCISE. 


207 


5. Write three telegrams on different subjects, each 
to be of ten words. 

6. Write a letter to a young friend in another place, 
describing a picnic you recently enjoyed. 

7. Write a note of invitation. Of acceptance. Of 
regret. 

8. Write a letter introducing one friend of yours to 
another friend. 

9. Write a letter thanking a gentleman for a let¬ 
ter of recommendation. 

10. Write A. Flanagan Co., 266 Wabash Ave., 
Chicago, asking for a copy of their Teacher’s Catalogue. 


APPENDIX. 


Conjugation of the Verb Be. 

Principal Parts. 

Present: am. Past: was. Past Participle : been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 


Present Tense. 

Past Tense. 

Future Tense. 

Sing. 

1. am "| 

Plu. 

| 

Sing. 

1. was ) 

Plu. 

Sing, and Plural. 

2. are 

3. is J 

> are, 

. 2. were 

3. was J 

> were. 

shall or will be. 

Present Perfect. 

Past Perfect. 


Future Perfect. 

Sing, and Plu. 

Sing, and Plu. 


Sing, and Plu. 

have been 

had been 

shall 

or will have been 


has been (3d per. sing.). 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present : may, can, must be. Past : might, 
could, would, should be. Pres. Perfect: may, can, 
must have been. Past Perfect : might, could, would, 
should have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present : be. Past : were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present: be (with subject in second person). 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present : being. Past : been. Perfect : having been. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present : (to ) be. Perfect : (to ) have been. 


LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 2C9 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


Those marked with an R are also used as regular verbs. 


Pres. T. 

Past T. 

l 

Past P . 

Pres. T. 

Past T. 

Past P. 

Abide 

Arise 

abode 

arose 

abode 

arisen 

Cleave • 

f clove 
\ cleft 

( cloven 
( cleft 

Awake 

Be or am 

awoke, R 

was 

awaked 

been 

Clothe 

Come 

clad, R 

came 

clad, R 

come 

Bear 

bore 

born 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Bear 

bore 

borne 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Beat 

beat 

beaten 

Crow 

crew, R 

crowed 

Begin 

began 

begun 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Bend 

bent, R 

bent, R 

Dare 

durst, R 

dared 

Bereave 

bereft, R 

bereft, R 

Deal 

dealt, R 

dealt, R 

Beseech 

besought 

besought 

Dig 

dug, R 

dug, R 

Bet 

bet, R 

bet, R 

Dive 

dove, R 

dived 

Bless 

blest, R 

'bid, 

„ bade 

blest, R 

Do 

Draw 

did 

drew 

done 

drawn 

Bid j 

bidden 

Dream 

dreamt, R 

dreamt, R 

Bind 

bound 

bound 

Dress 

drest, R 

drest, R 

Bite 

Bleed 

bit 

bled 

bitten 

bled 

Drink 

drank 

( drank 
( drunk 

Blow 

blew 

blown 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Break 

broke 

broken 

Dwell 

dwelt, R 

dwelt, R 

Breed 

bred 

bred 

Eat 

ate 

eaten 

Bring 

brought 

brought 

Fall 

fell 

fallen 

Build 

built, R 

built, R 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Burn 

burnt, R 

burnt, R 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Burst 

burst 

burst 

Fight 

fought 

fought 

Buy 

bought 

bought 

Find 

found 

found 

Cast 

cast 

cast 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Catch 

caught, R 

caught, R 

Fling 

flung 

flun 6 

Chide 

chid 

chidden 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Choose 

chose 

chosen 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Cling 

clung 

clung 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 








210 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 


Pres.T. 

Past T. 

PastP. 

Pres. T. 

Past T. 

Past P. 

Get 

got 

) got, 

( gotten 

Mow 

Pass 

mowed 
past, R 

mown, R 
past, R 

Gild 

gilt, B 

gilt, R 

Pay 

paid 

paid 

Gird 

girt, R 

girt, R 

Pen 

pent,# 

pent, R 

Give 

gave 

given 

Put 

put 

put 

Go 

went 

gone 

Quit 

quit, R 

quit, R 

Grave 

graved 

graven, R 

Rap 

rapt, R 

rapt, R 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Read 

read 

read 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Rend 

rend 

rent 

Hang 

hung 

hung 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Have 

had 

• had 

Ride 

rode 

ridden 

Hear 

heard 

heard 


[ ran £> 

( rung 


Heave 

hove, R 

hoven, R 

Ring 

rung 

Hew 

hewed 

hewn, R 

Rise 

rose 

risen 

Hide 

hid 

hidden 

Rive 

rived 

riven, R 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Run 

ran 

run 

Hold 

held 

held 

Saw 

sawed 

sawn, R 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Say 

said 

said 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

See 

saw 

seen 

Kneel 

knelt, R 

knelt, R 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

Knit 

knit, R 

knit, R 

Seethe 

sod, R 

sodden, R 

Know 

knew 

known 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Lade 

laded 

laden, R 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Lay 

laid 

laid 

Set 

set 

set 

Lead 

led 

led 

Shake 

shook 

shaken 

Leave 

left 

left 

Shape 

shaped 

shapen,R 

Lean 

leant R 

leant, R 

Shear 

sheared 

shorn ,R 

Leap 

leapt, R 

leapt, R 

Shave 

shaved 

shaven, R 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Let 

let 

let 

Shine 

shone, R 

shone, R 

Lie 

lay 

lain 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Light 

lit, R 

lit, R 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Show 

showed 

shown, R 

Make 

made 

made 

Shrink -j 

f shrunk, 

shrunk 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

L shrank 


Meet 

met 

met 

Shred 

shred 

shred 






LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


211 


Pres. T. Past T. 

Past P. 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

/sang, 

\sung 

sung 

Sink 

( sunk, 

J sank 

sunk 

Sit 

sat 

sat 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Slide 

slid 

/ slidden 
\slid 

Sling 

slung 

slung 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit 

slit 

Smite 

smote 

smitten 

Sow 

sowed 

sown, R 

Speak 

( spoke, 

( spake 

spoken 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spend 

spent 

spent 

Spin 

( spun, 

( span 

spun 

Spit 

( spit, 

( spat 

spit 

Split 

split 

split 

Spread 

spread 

spread 

Spring 

( sprang, 

| sprung 

sprung 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Stay 

staid, R 

staid, R 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

Sting 

stung 

stung 

Stride 

/ strode, 

\ strid 

stridden, 

strid 

Strike 

struck 

/ struck, 

\ stricken 


Pres. T. 

Past T. 

Past P. 

String 

strung 

strung 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Strow 

strowed 

strown,R 

Swear 

swore, 

sworn 

Sweat 

sweat, R 

sweat, R 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Swell 

swelled 

swollen, R 

Swim • 

( swam 
[ swum 

swum 

Swing 

swung 

swung 

Take 

took 

taken 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Tear j 

1 tore, 
tare 

torn 

Tell 

told 

told 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Thrive 

throve, R 

thriven, R 

Throw 

threw 

thrown 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

Tread 

trod, 

trodden 

Wax 

waxed 

waxen, R 

Wake 

woke, R 

woke, R 

Wear 

wore 

worn 

Weave 

wove 

woven 

Wed 

wed, R 

wed, R 

Weep 

wept 

wept 

Wet 

wet, R 

wet,R 

Whet 

whet, R 

whet, R 

Win 

won 

won 

Wind 

wound, R 

wound 

Work 

wrought ,R wrought ,R 

Wring 

wrung 

wrung 

Write 

wrote 

written 


A few verbs, usually regular, are sometimes spelled with t 
instead of ed; as spelt , spilt , learnt , smelt, blent, spoilt. 







































































































































































































